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ENGLISH COMPOSITION, 

IN A METHOD ENTIRELY NEW, 
WITH VARIOUS SHORT 

CONTRASTED EXAMPLES, 

FROM CELEBRATED WRITERS, 
■ THE WHOLE ADAPTED TO 

COMMON CAPACITIES, 

AND DESIGNED AS AN 

EASY HELP TO FORM A GOOD STYLE, 

AND TO ACQUIRE A TASTE FOR 

THE WORKS OF THE BEST AUTHORS. 



BY THE REf. (Pi G SCRAGGS. 



TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 

AN ESSAY ON THE 

ADVANTAGES OE UNDERSTANDING COMPOSITION, 

AND A LIST OF SELECT BOOKS FOR ENGLISH READERS WITH 

REMARKS. 



LONDON: 
PRINTED BY C. WHITHNGHAM, 

Ve.in Street, Fetter L-.rut. 

FOR H. D. S/MONDS, PATERNOSTER-ROW. 
And may be had of Mr. Seeley, Bookseller in Buckingham. 

1802. 




CONTENTS. 



Page 
The Preface v 

An Introductory Essay on the Advantages of un- 
derstanding English Composition .... xiii 

A small select Literary Library for English Read- 
ers, with Remarks xxv 

CHAP. I. 

An Exemplification of the Ten Parts of Speech, 
with Contrasted Examples at the end of each... 2' 

CHAP. II. 

Various Contrasted Phrases or Expressions 60 

CHAP. III. 
Divided and Transposed Sentences 82 

CHAP. IV. 
The principal Figures of Speech, with Contrasted 
Examples at the End 90 

CHAP. V. 
Short Examples of different Kinds of good English 
Language 126 

CHAP. VI. 
Brief Directions how to form a suitable Style ,; 165 



PREFACE. 



HPHE writings of Cicero, Qwritiltan, Lon- 
ginus, and other classic authors, are truly- 
valuable. To them we are indebted for 
many original remarks on style, as well as 
for those excellent rules respecting elocution 
which we find in so many recent publications. 

Notwithstanding this, it must be owned 
that succeeding writers of different polite na- 
tions have made improvements in composition 
suited to their languages, and especially mo- 
dern British authors. 

The best of such English books on this 
subject are, Harris' 's Hermes, Karnes on 
Criticism, Campbell's Rhetoric, and Blair's 
Lectures. 

But although these are valuable works, yet 
most of them are so expensive, that not many 
a 



Vt PREFACE. 

can purchase them, or so scholastic, that but 
few are able to have a competent under- 
standing of their meaning. For these rea- 
sons it is impossible that they should be so 
extensively useful as the importance of the 
subject requires. 

To remedy this, Mr* Irving has published 
lately, in one vol. 12mo. ' The Elements of 
English Composition ;' but even this is not 
sufficiently short and plain for persons of 
common capacities, who have but little time 
to read. Besides, it supposes the readers to 
be acquainted with all the rules of grammar, 
and the figures of rhetoric, and if not, some 
books must be procured, and well understood, 
before Mr. living's publication can be pro- 
perly useful to such persons. 

The subsequent little work is meant to 
contain every thing important on the subject 
within itself, and will save time, trouble, and 
expence. Each part of speech is first fully 
explained in a very plain manner, and then, 
instead of long complicated rules of syntax, 
the principal things respecting grammar and 
composition, are reduced to a few simple 



PREFACE. vn 

rules, with examples to the respective parts 
of speech, and also to the rhetorical figures. 
By this new and easy method, scholars are 
reminded, and others encouraged to improve 
their minds as well as their style, who per- 
haps would not have been induced to do 
either by the common tedious and perplexing 
mode. One remark may here be made, that 
as the construction of the English tongue is 
very different from the learned languages, 
therefore no one should expect to find in 
this work grammatical rules exactly similac 
to the Latin syntax. 

Such being the general plan of this work, 
It is evidently more easy than any hitherto 
published. It requires only some previous 
knowledge of punctuation, and an ability to 
conjugate the verbs, but no other elementary 
book is at first necessary. If any should 
think, that this concise method will necessa- 
rily tend to make readers superficial, the au- 
thor observes, that he hopes it will not have 
any such tendency. To avoid this, no im- 
portant rule is designedly omitted, nor any 
example left out, and when all the rules in 

a 2 



Viu PREFACE. 

this book are well understood the author 
advises, the reader to study the works of the 
great writers first mentioned. 

The compiler hereof is an Englishman. 
He feeis an ardent desire, that all his coun- 
trymen may improve rapidly in their lan- 
guage, and he cannot think of any means 
more likely to answer this desirable end, than 
the publication of a short and plain book on 
composition. No new theory, nor original 
remarks, are here, offered ; but as the requi- 
sites to produce a good style are here brought 
all together, the author presumes that the 
subject is illustrated in a new and striking 
manner, especially with respect to the con- 
trasted examples. The design of these ex- 
amples is at one view to correct those inaccu- 
racies which are to be observed not only in 
conversation, but in the writings of the best 
English authors, and which many persons at 
first sight would not consider as improprie- 
ties. These contrasted examples recom- 
mend themselves, as they please, improve, 
and satisfy the mind, while they engage the 
eye and the understanding. To avoid unne- 

2 



PREFACE. IX 

cessary repetitions, only one or two examples 
are given to exemplify the chief foregoing 
rules. The improper are on the left hand, 
and the proper on the right, and the words 
in italics visibly point out the inaccuracy. 
Should any person casually open in this part 
of the book, let him not hastily reject any of 
the amendments, nor think any of them 
trifling. All improprieties should be avoid- 
ed, and the author may confidently affirm, 
that most of the alterations he has made are 
either authorized by the rules, or by the opi- 
nion of the best critics. 

It is not within the design of this work, to 
take notice of gross errors in grammar, nor 
yet of provincial expressions. Neither are 
there in this work any examples of the gram- 
matical errors in our translation of the Bible.. 
These are omitted, partly as they are but few 
when compared with its beauties, and also 
because the author will do nothing that may 
have the least tendency to lessen that high 
veneration, which all should have for the sa- 
cred Scriptures. Bishop Lowth very pro- 
perly observes, that our present translation 



SB PREFACE. 

is in most places a model for English compo- 
sition. As to the examples of good language 
in Chap. V. they are taken from the best 
English authors, and are few and short, that 
they might not increase the price of this vo- 
lume. They are also on such subjects that 
cannot fail to instruct and entertain judicious 
persons. Some of these, and other examples 
in this book, are in prose, and others in poe- 
try, in order to give variety. That nothing 
might be wanting for the instruction of En- 
glish readers, a short select number of books 
are recommended, with remarks by the au- 
thor, from above twenty years extensive 
reading. 

Although this work may be used as a 
school book, yet it is by no means to be con- 
fined to children. All who have not time to 
read the great works first mentioned, may 
use this, as may also those who have neg- 
lected to ir" prove the grammatical education 
which they received in their youth. 

The author has only to add, that as he re- 
sides at a distance from the press, and is so 
constantly employed, he hopes that candid 



PREFACE. xi 

readers will allow for any inaccuracies that 
remain uncorrected. As the great Dr. Blair 
finishes the Preface to his Lectures with the 
following apologetic observations, so the au- 
thor of this little work adopts the same, * If 
after the liberty which it was necessary for 
the author to take in criticising the style of 
the most eminent writers in our language, 
his own should be thought open to reprehen- 
sion, all that he can say is, that his book will 
add one to the many proofs already offered to 
the world, of its being more easy to give irt* 
structions, than to set examples. 



INTRODUCTORY ESSAY, 

ON THE 

ADVANTAGES OF UNDERSTANDING 

ENGLISH COMPOSITION 



Harsh words, though pertinent, uncouth appear ; 
Few please the judgment, who offend the ear. 

GARTH. 

5 Tis not enough, no harshness gives offence, 
The sound must be an echo to the sense. 

POPE. 



A S this work may be read by some who do 
not see the importance of understanding 
composition, it is thought necessary to recite 
some of its benefits. This will be done by 
first answering objections against studying this 
subject, and then by pointing out the adva?i- 

a3 



XIV ADVANTAGES OF 

tages of being able to speak and write the 
English language with propriety and ele- 
gance. 

1. It may be alledged by some who are 
past sixty years of age, that they are too old 
for such a study. This objection would be 
strong against aged persons learning any fo- 
reign language; it would also have been 
weighty respecting such becoming very pro- 
ficient in our own tongue a century ago, when 
there was no easy introduction to the sub- 
ject. Now it has very little force, particu- 
larly as this book is so short and plain, that 
the aged may soon learn how to form a good 
style, and to relish works of taste, which will 
afford them great pleasure during the re- 
mainder of their lives. 

2. Others may say, that as they can read 
and write very intelligibly :, it is quite enough 
for them. Such a plea may do for poor 
labouring persons, but others should be 
ashamed to make such an excuse. To speak 
in this manner, shews great ignorance and 
conceit, for it is in fact saying, that they are 
content with being blunderers, and are deter- 



UNDERSTANDING COMPOSITION. xv 

mined so to continue, rather than take some 
pains to improve. Such stupidity and indo- 
lence of mind is the more inexcusable, as the 
means of instruction are now so easy. 

3. Some may argue, that being so much 
engaged in business, they have no time for 
this study. The plea respecting want of 
time for any thing commendable, is now be- 
come so common, that it is generally disre- 
garded. Time can be found for luxury '» 
journeys, and amusements,, by them who 
make this excuse. They have also hours 
which they misuse. Some of this time 
would be more profitably employed in such a 
rational and pleasing study as that of compo- 
sition, the understanding of which will render 
us more fit to transact business. 

4. Many perhaps will say, that other things 
are of greater importance. The care of the 
soul is certainly of greater consequence, but 
surely mental improvement is not to be neg- 
lected.. As to the degree of importance which 
the study of composition has, when com- 
pared with other parts of learning, if we 
consult the most eminent men of the greatest 



x Vi ADVANTAGES OF 

nations, it is to berated very high. Thus 
the Greeks and Romans considered the refine- 
ment of their languages very important, and 
the French are now of the same opinion 
with respect to theirs. Every Briton, like 
them, should consider it as an absolute duty 
to improve his style, and to have his children 
well instructed in the various branches of his 
own language. Persons in genteel life have 
for many years been accustomed to have 
their children taught the French tongue; 
this is an accomplishment, and may be useful 
to them, but it is of much more consequence 
for them to understand their own language 
completely. A poet very properly gives this 
advice : 

Let ev'ry other tongue alone, 

Till you can read, and spell your own. 

How ridiculous is it to hear young ladies 
or gentlemen boast of proficiency in the 
French language, and yet, perhaps, they can- 
not write many sentences in English without 
various inaccuracies. Mr. Sheridan observes, 



UNDERSTANDING COMPOSITION. xvi* 

that ' as our own language contains every 
thing useful and ornamental, it ought to be 
the firsts and a principal part of our educa- 
tion.' We have so many well written En- 
glish books, in every branch of literature, that 
the study of composition is now become al- 
most absolutely necessary in Great Britain. 

Lastly, some, supposing that it will take a 
long time - to understand composition, are 
discouraged from making any attempt. This 
is a great mistake, for they who know some- 
thing of grammar and rhetoric, by studying 
this book will soon become proficient, and 
such as have not this knowledge, by a close 
application to the same, will not be long be- 
fore they receive so much pleasure, that it 
will encourage them to proceed. The au- 
thor is confident, that a grown person of a 
common capacity, by attentively studying all 
that is herein contained, for only about three 
hours each day, may be able, in 2. few weeks, 
not only to avoid inaccuracies, but to write 
and speak with great propriety. 

As to the advantages of understanding 
composition, much may be gathered from 



XV ill-: ADVANTAGES OF 

what has been advanced, therefore only a few 
of the benefits will be considered. 

1. Such a knowledge gives a great insight 
into any subject, either heard or read. They 
who do not understand grammar and rheto- 
ric, are liable continually to mistakes. Even 
supposing that they have quick natural abi- 
lities, still, as our tongue is so equivocal, they 
must have very imperfect conceptions. On 
the contrary, such as know the rules of com- 
position,- very soon enter into the meaning of 
what is expressed in words, and thus errors 
are detected, and great improvement speedily 
received. This knowledge also includes such 
an extensive acquaintance with the meaning 
of phrases as well as words, with all their cor- 
responding connections, that those who pro- 
perly understand. composition, may be said to 
be masters of the English language. 

2. Our reasoning powers are greatly as- 
sisted by this knowledge. We are not indeed, 
to expect that it will of itself make profound 
logicians, but it will be a considerable help 
for that purpose. Thus, an: acquaintance 
with composition teaches us to analyze that 



UNDERSTANDING COMPOSITION. xixk 

which we hear or read, and to reason upon* 
its beauties or defects. This will lead to fur- 
ther investigations, and so by degrees the 
powers of the mind are strengthened. 

3. A taste for the beauties of language 
increases mental pleasures. As the excel- 
lencies of nature or art are not much relished 
by persons of little taste, so it is with respect 
to a good style. For instance, Addison may- 
be admired by superficial readers, but as they 
can discern only a few of his beauties, their 
pleasures from perusing his writings must be 
small. On the other hand, one who is well 
acquainted with the properties of good lan- 
guage, discovers many more excellencies in 
the works of Addison, and consequently re- 
ceives much more delight from reading them. 
These remarks are equally applicable to what 
we hear. Thus,- an illiterate serious person 
may admire a gospel preacher who uses good 
language, but a hearer of this kind can never 
receive so much profit and pleasure as gra- 
cious learned persons have in hearing such a 
minister. In these respects we may see that 
one who understands composition has mani- 



XX ADVANTAGES OF 

fest advantages over those who, though sen- 
sible and pious, are without this knowledge. 

4. By using good language, we may add 
charms to truth. It is well known, that 
many excellencies on moral and literary sub- 
jects are obscured by feeble expressions, but 
what is worse, the glorious truths of the gospel 
appear to great disadvantage with mean Ian-' 
guage. Here perhaps it may be observed, 
that the Ai mighty has not owned some mi- 
nisters who are very correct, while he has 
abundantly blessed the labours of many who 
use low expressions. To this it may with, 
truth be-replied, that as God is a sovereign, 
he wi!i bless his word, when, and hi whom 
he pleases. None however will dare to say, 
that this is on account of the mean language 
which some use : on the contrary, it is likely 
to suppose, that if such worthy ministers were 
not to use vulgar expressions, and to endea- 
vour to be more correct, that they would be 
still more useful. By good language, the au- 
thor does not mean to recommend any thing 
like a bombastic style, which is not fit for the 
press, and much less for the pulpit. Our 



UNDERSTANDING COMPOSITION. xxi 

style may be sufficiently plain, and yet neat 
or elegant, which is the proper dress for truth 
of every kind. Some writers have remarked, 
that it does not stand in need of any embel- 
lishments. This is very just with respect to 
the intrinsic value of truth, but it certainly 
shines with double lustre, and is likely to do 
more good when properly ornamented. 

5. A knowledge of composition is continu- 
ally useful. Experience convinces us that 
the manner of expressing our thoughts is of 
considerable importance, for although our 
sentiments may be just,' yet if we express 
them improperly, they are not well received. 
\V^ may also fail in an undertaking, merely 
from some defect in language. But further, 
how many mistakes are continually made, 
both verbally and in writing* merely for want 
of using proper words ? How many families, 
as well as individuals, have suffered by law 
suits on account of incorrect writings? On 
the other hand, an ability to write and speak 
with propriety, not only qualifies for much 
usefulness as an author or a public speaker, 
but it is often the chief cause of raisins: some 



xxii ADVANTAGES OF 

to riches and honour. If however it should 
not prove so highly beneficial, it cannot fail 
in private lift to give us superiority over the 
illiterate, to accomplish for conversation, and 
to render us much more capable of serving 
ourselves and others. Every Briton is there- 
fore deeply interested in endeavouring to ac- 
quire a knowledge of good composition, since 
k has great advantages when considered in 
a practical point of view. 

Finally, young persons in particular should 
form a good style, by studying the best au- 
thors. The most favourable time for this 
purpose is in youth, as bad habits are not 
then contracted, the mind is unincumbered 
with care, and durable impressions may ea- 
sily be made. Here it will be necessary to 
make some shtoit remarks on &** ]»*«««** 
mode of education in Great Britain, so far as 
connected with English composition. 

Since this knowledge is so advantageous, 
St may be enquired why it is not better taught 
in schools ? To this we may answer, that the 
deficiency is owing chiefly to the injudicious 
<& parsimonious conduct of some parents and 



UNDERSTANDING COMPOSITION. xxiu 

guardians. They either prefer large schools,, 
where there is not sufficient time to teach 
composition, or, to save expences, young per- 
sons are put under the care of such teachers 
as are not capable to instruct them in this, as 
well as other valuable-parts of learning. To- 
avoid such evils, children should be sent to 
those places of education, which receive a 
small number only, and where the tutor pos- 
sesses distinguishing abilities, and not where 
the best parts of learning are taught by ushers. 
In such a seminary where the master is thus 
qualified, and which he constantly superin- 
tends, it must be the fault of the pupils if 
they do not improve, as they are taught to 
compose themes, which are intended to lead 
to all those refinements in style that are here 
recommended. After this, when those who 
have had such an education leave their 
schools, they should read only such books as 
are written in good language. Thus, an at- 
tention to correct composition in youth would 
soon become habitual, and the benefits would 
be great throughout life. 
This essay shall be concluded with the- 



Xxiv ADVANTAGES OF, &c 

following quotation, on this part of the sub- 
ject, from Mr. Irving. « No object has ever 
appeared of greater importance to wise men, 
than to tincture young minds with an early 
relish for the pleasures of taste. Easy in 
general is the transition from the pursuits of 
these to the discharge of the higher duties 
of life. Sanguine hopes may be entertained 
of those who have this liberal and elegant 
disposition; it is favourable to the growth 
of every virtue ; whereas, to be void of taste, 
is justly regarded as an unpromising symptom 
111 youth, and raises suspicion of their being 
prone to low gratifications, or destined to 
drudge in the more vulgar pursuits of life. 
There are few good dispositions with which 
the improvement of this faculty is not in 
some degree connected. A cultivated taste 
increases sensibility to ail the tender and hu- 
mane passions, by giving them frequent ex- 
ercises, while it tends to weaken the more 
violent emotions, by exciting in us a lively 
sense of decorum.' 



A SMALL, SELECT, 

LITERARY LIBRARY, 

FOR 

ENGLISH READERS, 

WITH REMARKS. 



TT must be owned, that since magazines, re- 
views, and periodical publications have been 
so common, that the number of English 
readers is greatly increased. Still however 
it is to be lamented, that there are in Great 
Britain many who might, but will not read. 
Some of these are so covetous that they cannot 
be persuaded to purchase books ; others 
spend so much money in dress, or luxury, 
that they have none left; some also, having 
never acquired a habit of reading, have no 
proper relish for such a commendable exer- 
cise of the mind. The author earnestly en- 
treats all, who have any opportunities of im- 



XXVi A SELECT LIBRARY 

provement by reading, no longer to neglect 
them. It is not indeed to be expected, that 
profligate characters should attend to the cul- 
tivation of their minds, but it is surprising 
that moral persons should be deficient herein. 
Above all, it is to be lamented, that many 
serious persons, who have time, should employ 
so little of it in reading, though they daily 
lose some hours either in useless visits, mine- 
pessary sleep, or unprofitable conversation* 
Some of these may, perhaps, read occasionally, 
but it is for a short time only, in a careless 
manner, and their conversation proves that 
their reading is very superficial. Let us hope 
that this defect amongst some serious persons 
is either because they have not been told 
plainly of this fault, or that they have not had 
proper directions what books they should 
purchase, and how to improve their minds. 
To furnish such with the best means for these 
purposes is the chief object of the following 
short list of English books ; and it may be 
observed, that they are noticed in the pro- 
gressive order in which they should be read, 



FOR ENGLISH READERS. xxva 

1. Dr. ASH's ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

SMALL 12mO. 

They who are ignorant of grammar, and 
have but little time, should very carefully 
study this, which is the most easy, short, and 
cheap English Grammar that is published. 
Those who have more money, and time to 
•read, should procure Linlcy Murray's Gram- 
mar and Exercises, 2 vols. 12mo. which are 
deservedly celebrated, and Mr. Scr&ggs grate- 
fully acknowledges that he has taken many of 
the rules and examples in his book from va- 
rious parts of Mr. Murray's publications. 

2. BARCLAY'S ENGLISH blCTIONARY, 
8vo. 1801. Robinson. 

The new editions of the dictionaries by 
Dyckc, Fenning, and Johnson, have made 
them much more acceptable to the public, 
than the old editions, but Barclay's has many 
useful articles, both prefixed and in the body 
of the work, which are not in any other En- 
glish dictionary 



xxviu A SELECT LIBRARY 



3. Dr. WATTs 
IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND. 

12mo, 1792. Lackington. 

This is a well-known valuable work, and 
the abovementioned is a very cheap edition, 
as it has both parts, and some other of Dr. 
Watts's pieces, in this one vol. Dr. Johnson 
says of this publication, ' whoever has the 
care of instructing others, may be charged 
with deficiency in his duty, if this book be 
not recommended.' It contains such a great 
number of useful directions in reading, speak- 
ing, &c. that it should be read over very often, 
until the whole contents of it are engrafted into 
the reader's mind. 

4. Dr. MAVORs 

UNIVERSAL HISTORY, l2mo. 

Now publishing in monthly volumes. Hurst. 

The Universal History. Rapirts History of 
England, and Smollett's History, have their 
excellencies, but few can purchase either of 



FOR ENGLISH READERS. xxix 

them. Goldsmith's History of England, and 
also his Roman and Grecian histories, are 
good abridgments, but Dr. Mavor's work 
seems an improvement, and is to be brought 
down to the peace in 1801. The first nine 
volumes are to be the ancient history, and the 
next sixteen the modern. About eight vo- 
lumes are already published, and though the 
work will cost, when half bound, about four 
guineas and a half, yet it is very cheap, con- 
sidering how much it comprehends. Mr, 
Scraggs has not the least acquaintance with 
Dr. Mavor nor his bookseller, but in common 
justice to this, and some other of his books, he 
with pleasure recommends them. 

5. WALKER'S GEOGRAPHY, 8vo. also 
his GAZETTEER, 8vo. 1801. 

Mr. Walker's Geographical publications, 
and his abilities, are so well known, that very 
little need be said respecting either. If any 
wish to have a work on the subject which is 
shorter, Mr. Scraggs recommends the new 
edition of Mr. Evans's Geography, in 12mo. 
b 



xxx A SELECT LIBRARY 

just published. This little work is not only 
proper for all schools, but this new edition 
contains so much in a small compass, that 
it cannot fail to please and satisfy most 
readers. 

6. BARR's NEW EDITION OF 
BUFFON's NATURAL HISTORY, 

12mo. 15 vol. 1801. Symonds. 
This work is an improvement upon many 
celebrated Natural Histories, and though it 
will cost about four guineas bound, yet it is 
not dear, considering it contains so much 
reading, as well as a great number of beau- 
tiful copper plates. They who cannot pur- 
chase this work, may have some satisfaction 
by reading Dr. Mavor's Natural History, one 
volume 12mo. 2d edit. 1801. 

7. Dr. W ATKINS's 
BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL 
DICTIONARY, 1 vol. 8vo. 1801. Hurst. 
The Biographical Dictionary, in ten vo- 
lumes octavo, is an excellent work, as is the 



FOR ENGLISH READERS. xxxi 

Biographia Britanica, but they are too ex- 
pensive. Dr. Watkins's is a judicious a- 
bridgment, or rather an Epitome of these 
works ; and yet there are articles in this vo- 
lume, which are not to be' found in the former 
large works. It is to be hoped that a 
second edition with additions and improve- 
ments will soon be published. 

8. THE TABLET OF MEMORY, 
12rno, 1S00, 10th edit. Robinson. 

Blair's Chronology is so dear, that few can 
purchase it, and besides, the last edition only 
comes down to 1789. Mortimer's Student's 
Dictionary, in one vol, 12mo. is upon a 
most excellent plan, as one part is biography, 
and the other chronology, but it is only 
brought down to 1789. A new edition, with 
improvements is much wanted. 

The Tablet of Memory has gone through 
many editions, and is brought down to 1800, 
the dates, &c. are accurate, and it contains a 
vast abundance of information. 



xxxn A SELECT LIBRARY 

9. ADAMS'S 

ELEMENTS OF USEFUL KNOW- 
LEDGE, l2mo. 1199. Law. 

This is a good school book, but it is not re- 
commended to grown persons, for what it has 
of geography, biography, or chronology, as 
they are too short. It is proper, however, to 
be read, for what it contains of mythology, 
astronomy, natural philosophy, and the En- 
glish government. 

10. SCRAGGS's 
INSTRUCTIVE SELECTIONS, 

Being striking extracts from 150 of the best 
authors on divine, moral, and literary sub- 
jects, 2 vols. 12mo. 1802, closely printed, 
2d edit. Symonds. 

This would not have been mentioned here, 
if it were not a work that is expressly written 
for the benefit of English readers. There are 
a great number of selections published, but 
let any unprejudiced person compare the best 
of them with this, and then its superiority 
will be seen. It is much more comprehen- 



FOR ENGLISH READERS. xxxin 

sive than any other selection, as well as more 
methodical. If it. had been printed like most 
modern books, as it contains so much, it 
would have been almost double the size and 
price. It was first printed about a year and a 
half ago. The critics, who have reviewed it, 
have recommended it very favourably. For 
a more particular account, see the Prospectus 
at the end of this volume. 



11. CLASSICAL ENGLISH POETRY, 

By Mayor and Pratt, 1 vol. 12mo. 1801. 

Hurst. 

Johnson's', Anderson's) and BeWs Poets, are 
in many volumes, and are too expensive. 
As every piece that the great poets published 
is not excellent, a selection is best, especially 
for those who have not much time to read. 
This volume is not methodically arranged, 
but it contains the most celebrated pieces from 
eminent poets, and has some original poems. 
The whole is neatly printed on good paper. 



A SELECT LIBRARY 



RHETORICAL GRAMMAR, Svo. 1801. 
Mr. John Walker, the author of this,, and 
some other excellent works, is a teacher of 
elocution. No person, from his age and abi- 
lities, was more capable to write on this sub- 
ject. Gibbons' 's Rhetoric is a good produc- 
tion, but this is an improvement, especially in 
what relates to the voice, and other pari of 
elocution. _ Ail who frequently speak in pub- 
lic, should carefully peruse this Work, and 
others may be instructed by reading it atten- 
tively. If Mr. Walker would abridge some 
parts, and publish a cheaper edition, this work 
would be still more useful. 

THE above-mentioned books, are some of 
the best that the author can recommend to 
English readers who have not much time. 
After these are well understood, the reader's 
good sense will naturally point out others that 
should follow. If any desire to have further 
information respecting English books, they 



FOR ENGLISH READERS. xxxv 

may consult the Reviews, the London Cata- 
logue to 1800, Mr. Collins on the Choke of 
Books, and Lackington's C .talogue. They 
who wish to know what new publications are 
out every month, should procure the Monthly 
Magazine, or a new Monthly List of Publica- 
tions with their prices, published by Bent, and 
to be given gratis to booksellers on the last 
day of every month. 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION, 

8Cc. &c. 



A CCORDING to the best modern writers, 
the art of good composition consists 
principally in being able to write in any- lan- 
guage with purity, perspicuity, and precision, 
in a style adapted to the subject. In order 
to enable the reader to write and speak the 
English language in this manner, it will be 
necessary, in the subsequent parts of this 
work, to give 

1. An exemplification of the ten parts of 
speech, with rules, and contrasted examples. 

2. Various contrasted expressions. 

3. Divided and transposed sentences. 

4. The principal figures of speech, with 
contrasts at the end. 

5. Short examples of good composition, 
and, 

6. Directions how to form a good style. 



ARTICLE. 

CHAP. I. 

OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



AN ARTICLE 

Is placed before nouns, to determine or 
limit their signification. There are only- 
three, viz. a, an, the. A is placed before a 
word in the singular number, which begins 
with a consonant; as, a man, &c. an is set be- 
fore words beginning with a vowel , as, an owl, 
he. ; these two are called indefinite, because 
they relate only to any thing in general. 
The article the is definite, because it denotes a 
particular person or thing, in either the sin- 
gular or plural numbers; as, the man, the 
books. The peculiar use of the article will 
be seen in the following example, < the son of 
a king, the son of the king, a son of the king. 
Each of these has a very different meaning. 

RULES. 

1. A substantive without any article to 
limit it, is taken in its widest sense ; as, * a 
candid temper is proper for man ;' i. e. for all 
mankind. 2. A nice distinction is made by 



ARTICLE. 3 

the use or omission of the article a, as if I 
say, 'lie behaved with a little reverence,' the 
meaning is positive, and the person is praised ; 
but if it be said l he behaved with little reve- 
rence,' the meaning is negative, and he is not 
praised. 3. Sometimes a and the distinguish 
a person by an epithet, as 'I am surprised that 
he treated so coldly, a man so much the gen- 
tleman.' 4. The article a or an, distin- 
guishes families or eminent persons; as, 'he 
is a Russell,* i. e. of the Russell family ; 
or, ' he is almost a Newton, an Alexander,' 
&c. 5. For the sake of emphasis, a and an 
are sometimes repeated ; as, ' he hoped that 
this would secure him a perpetual and an in- 
dependent authority. 5 6. Sometimes the ar- 
ticle should be omitted by ellipsis; as, 'a 
man, woman and child ;' i. e. a man, a woman 
and a child. 7. Sometimes it should be re- 
peated by way of emphasis ; as, ' he remem- 
bers not only the year, but the day and the 
hour.' 8. The article a is sometimes joined 
with the adjective few or great many ; as, c a 
few men, a great many men ;' at other times 
it is joined to a plural substantive ; as, ' a dozen, 
a hundred years.' 9. The article a, is some- 
b 2 



4 ARTICLE. 

times placed between the adjective and a 
noun of the singula;- number, as in the fol- 
lowing beautiful verses. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
" The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ; 
Full many a flow'r is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

10. The definite article the is sometimes 
used comparatively .; as, « I Like this Me least of 
any ;' or, « the more I examine it, the better 
1 like it.' II. The article the is sometimes 
elegantly put for the possessive pronoun ; as, 
< he looked him full in the face,' i. e. in his 
face. 12. The following will serve as an 
example of the different uses of a and the. 
Man was made for society, but a man will 
naturally entertain a kindness for the man 
with whom he often converses, and he will 
enter into a still closer union with the man 
whose temper and disposition suits best with 
his own. 



CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 
Improper. Proper, 

A man is the noblest Man is the noblest 
work of God, work of Ged. 

4 



ARTICLE. 5 

Improper, Proper. 

We are placed here We are placed here 
under a trial of our vir- under the trial of our vir- 
tues, tues, 



He is a much better He is a much tetter 
writer than a reader. writer than reader. 



Reason was given to Reason was given to 
a man to controul his man tocontroul his pas- 
passions. sions. 



At worst, time might At the worst, time 
be gained by this expe- might be gained by this 
dient. expedient. 



Purity extends its in- Purity extends its in- 
fluence over so much of fluence over so much of 
outward conduct as to the outward conduct as 
form the great and ma- to form a great and ma- 
terial part of a charac- terial part of the charac- 
ter, ter. 



Who breaks a butter- Who breaks a butter- 
fly upon a wheel ? fly upon the wheel ? 



6 NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE, 

Improper. Proper. 

The king has confer- The king has confer- 
red on him the- title of red on him the title of 



duke. duke. 



A profligate man is A profligate man is 

seldom found to be the seldom found to be a 

good father or the bene- good father or a beiiefi- 

ficent neighbour. cent neighbour. 



He was influenced He was influenced by 
by a just and generous a just and a generous 
principle. principle. 



The fear of shame, The fear of shame, 

and a desire of approba- and the desire of appro- 

tion, prevents many bad bation, prevents many 

actions. bad actions. 



A NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE 
Is sense of itself, and expresses the name of 
any person, place, or thing ; as, John, Lon- 
don, virtue, &c. : most have two numbers, 
the singular, which speaks of one, and the 



NOUN- OR SUBSTANTIVE. 7 

plural which denotes more than one. Nouns 
have three genders* masculine, feminine and 
neuter. They have also two cases, the no- 
minative, (or first and leading case,) which 
names or refers to the principal person or 
thing in the sentence, and the genitive, (called 
also the possessive,) expressing the relation: 
or property ; as, John's bopk, i. e. the book 
of John. Many grammarians divide all 
noun-substantives into — 1st. proper names of. 
any particular person or thing ; as, John, 
London, &c. 2d. common, (called also ap- 
pellatives,) which are the names of collective. 
things; as, virtue, animal, man, trees, &c. 
In all nouns and pronouns, the masculine is 
more worthy than the feminine, and the fe- 
minine than the neuter. Nouns that have no • 
immediate relation to rational or animal life, 
, are called ideal names ; as, fame, time, wis- 
dom, &c. 

RULES-* 

1. Substantives, wmether in- the singular or 
plural number, are generally considered as of 
the third person. 2. Some have no singular, 
as ashes, bellows, scissors, and lungs : others 
bave no... plural; as,, wheat, pitch, sheep, and 



8 NOUN" OR SUBSTANTIVE, 

tleer. 3. A few words from the Hebrew 
have a peculiar termination in the plural; as, 
seraph makes seraphim, cherub, cherubim: 
some in like manner from the Latin ; as, ra- 
dius makes radii in the plural; phenomenon, 
phenomena, and magus, magi. 4. Figura- 
tively, the sun and time are masculine ; a ship, 
a country, a city, the earth, the church, virtue 
and fortune, are feminine ; things without 
life are generally neuter, unless they are 
personified. 5. It happens sometimes, that 
the same noun in different sentences, is either 
masculine or feminine ; as, parent, child, 
cousin, friend, neighbour or servant. 6. 
When two nouns signifying much the same 
thing are set together, they are said to be 
pfaced in apposition, and there is no variation 
of case ; as, * George, king of Great Britain, ' 
i. e. who is king, &c. 7/ When two nouns 
are placed together, and do not signify the 
same, the former is put in the possessive case, 
as man's happiness : when the plural ends in 
s, the apostrophe is only put ; as, * on eagles' 
wings:' * the drapers' company,' &c. 8. 
When several nouns come together in the 
possessive case, the s, with an apostrophe, is 



NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 9 

only put to the last, (unless each be ernphati- 
cal ;) as, < this was my father's, mother's, and 
brother's advice.' 9. Sometimes a noun in 
the possessive case stands alone, by way of 
ellipsis, another being understood; as, ' I 
went to St. Paul's, i. e. St. Paul's church ; or, I 
went to the booksellers,' i. e. the bookseller's 
shop. 10. Sometimes, not only the posses- 
sive termination is used when two nouns come 
together, but also the preposition of; as, 'it 
is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's,' instead 
of, * It is Sir Isaac Newton's discovery.' 11. 
To prevent a hissing sound in the possessive 
case, the apostrophe is only retained in some 
cases; as, < for righteousness' sake, for con- 
science' sake. 12. Collective nouns, (called 
also nouns of multitude or of number,) are 
the following; committee, parliament, mob, 
tribe, corporation, assembly, synod, convoca- 
tion, city, nation, people, family, flock. 
These nouns of multitude must sometimes 
have a singular verb, and some of them a 
plural verb, which see under the verbs. 1 3. 
The names of God are always written with 
capital letters, and so are all words that begin 
B3 



10 NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

a new sentence, or a new line in a title 
page: others are written generally with small 
letters, except /and O when alone. 



CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 
Improper. Proper. 

At the birth of Christ At the birth of Christ 
kill the seraphs rejoiced, all the seraphims re- 
rogers. joiced. 



Light may be said to Light may be said to 
be made up of the ra~ consist principally of the 
dius's of the sun. radii of the sun. 



NORRIS. 



Thy son's sin's will Thy son's sins will 

not condemn thee, not condemn thee. 

I would not do it for I would not do it for 

conscience's sake. conscience' sake. 

j. SMITH. 



Much depends on this Much depends on this 
rule being observed. rule's being observed. 



abjective:- 11 

Improper. Proper. 

It was my father's, It was my father, bro- 

brother's, and sister's lot ther, and sister's lot to 

to suffer by him. suffer by him. 



I bought these books I bought these books 
at Smith's the stationer's, at Smith's the stationer. 



Not only the counsel's Not only the counsel 
and the attorney's, but and the attorney's, but' 
the judge's opinion fa- the judge's opinion fa- 
vour 'd his cause, vour'd his cause. 



A tender infant is the A tender infant is the 
peculiar object of his peculiar object- of its 
mother's care. mother's care, 



AN ADJECTIVE 

Is- not sense of itself, but is added to a sub- 
stantive to shew its quality or peculiar nature ; 
as, a good man, a great city, a fine house. Ad- 
jectives hav© no variation of number, gender, 
or case, but have what are called three de- 
grees of comparison, viz. positive, small, com- 



12 - ADJECTIVE. 

paxatioe smaller, and superlative smallest, 
&c. They have also many that are irregu- 
lar m comparison ? as, good, better, best, 
&c. The adverbs more and most, are used 
in many comparatives and superlatives, to 
give them a better sound ; as, more lovely 
instead of lovelier, most holy instead of ho- 
liest, &c. The word rather expresses a 
small degree or excess of a quality ; as, < she 
is rather more profuse in her experices than 
some are.' Adjectives of one or two sylla- 
bles are compared- by er and est ; as, mild. 
milder, mildest, happy, happier, happiest, 
&c. : words of more syllables than two are 
compared by more and most; as. glorious, 
more glorious, most glorious, occ. 

I. Sometimes a noun becomes a kind of 
adjective, with or without a hyphen; as, 'a 
man-servant, a sea-fish, &c. ; also sometimes 
an adjective becomes a kind of noun ; as, 
* the chief-good.' 2. When the word thing 
is understood, the -adjective is pijl alone ; as, 
' who will shew us any good ?' L e. any good 
thing. 3. Adjectives that express numbers 



ADJECTIVE. 13 

are either cardinals ; as, one, two, three, &c. 
or ordinals; as, first, second, third, &c. 4. 
Such adjectives as have a superlative signifi- 
cation of themselves, must not be put. in the 
superlative degree ; as, chief, extreme, right, 
perfect, universal, &c. 5. Some are not to 
be compared ; as, * all, every, and many :* 
some have only the comparative degree ; as, 
* superior, inferior/ &c. : and others only the 
superlative ; as, < utmost and foremost.' 6. 
The pronominal adjectives, ' each, k every, 
and either,' agree with nouns, pronouns, or 
verbs in the singular number onl ; ; as, every 
tree is known by its fruit ; unless the "plural 
noun conveys a collective idea ; as, * every 
six months, every hundred years.' 7. Each 
and any apply to more than two things taken 
separately, but either and neither refer to 
only two taken disjunctively. 3. When art 
adjective has the proposition in before it, 
and the substantive is understood, it takes 
the nature of an adverb ; as, ' in general;, in 
particular,' means generally or particular! 'ij, 
9. Double comparatives or superlatives are 
always improper, unless when applied to 
God ; as, * the most highest.' 10. In com- 



H. ADJECTIVE. 

parisons the word more requires the word 
than after it, as its proper corresponding 
word ; as, ' he is more unhappy than I am.' 
1 1 . The following words in comparisons are 
allowable, if not strictly grammatical ; he is 
much wiser, he is by far the most accom- 
plished, it is incomparably more, God is 
infinitely greater than all. 12. The adjec- 
tive is generally placed before its substantive, 
yet sometimes after it; as, * Alexander the 
Great, a man truly pious and wise,' &c. 1 3. 
The word all is elegantly placed after several 
nouns; * as, ambition, interest, honour,' all 
concur in this. 14. There is beauty and 
force in some cases, in placing the adjective 
before the verb, and the substantive imme- 
diately after it; as, * great is the Lord, just 
and true are thy ways, thou King of Saints.' 
15. An adjective put without a substantive, 
with the definitive article before it, becomes 
a substantive in meaning, and is written as a 
substantive; as, 'Providence rewards the good 
but punishes the bad.' 16. In most cases ad- 
jectives should not be separated from their 
substantives. 



ADJECTIVE. 15 

C0NTA8TED EXAMPLES. 

Improper. Proper. 

We can much easier We can more easily 
form this conception. form this conception. 

BLAIR. 



This is the chiefest. This is the chiefs 

BLAIR. 



The lesser differences. The s?ualkr differ- 
blair. ences. 



The most perfect The most improved 
state. blair. state. 



It is too universal. It is too genera!. 

BLAIR. 



Truth, duty, and inr Truth, duty, and in- 
terest, or either of them, teres*., or each of them. 

BLAIR. 

Any of the two. Either of the two. 

BLAIR, 



16 ADJECTIVE. 

Improper. Proper. 

Which of these two Which of these two 
is the g reatest ? b l a i r, is the grea ter ? 



I can never think so I can never think so- 
very mean of him. meanly of him. 

ADDISON*. 



The extremest parts The most remote parts 

of the earth. " of the earth. 



ATTEKBURY. 



Tins is the likeliest This is the most likely 
to succeed. to succeed. 



ATTERBURY, 



These kmd v of indul- This kind of indul 
gences soften and injure gence softens and in 
the mind. jures the mind. 



You have been play- You have been play- 
ing this two hours. ing these two hours. 



Those sort of people That sort of people 
are dangerous, is dangerous. 



PRONOUN. 17 

Thomas has a new Thomas has a pair of 
pair of shoes, -new shoes. 



He is the servant of He is the >ervant of a 
n old rich man. rich old man, 



A PRONOUN 

Is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid 
the too' frequent repetition of the same 
word ; as, { the man is happy, he is benevo- 
lent, he is useful.' Pronouns like nouns have 
two numbers ; the singular, I, thou, he, she, 
it ; and the plural, we, ye, they. Gender 
has only respect to the third person, he, she, 
or it. Pronouns have three cases : the no- 
minative ; as, I, then, he, she, or it, we, ye, 
they, &c. : the possessive ; as, mine, thine, 
his, her's, yours, their's : and the accusative 
(or objective) me, thee, him, her, it, as, you, 
them, &c. There are five primitive perso- 
nal pronouns ; I, thou, he, she, it, with their 
plurals. Possessive or adjective pronouns, 
are, my, thy, his, her, our, your, and their, 
with their plurals mine, thine, Sec. ; relativq 



IS PRONOUN. 

pronouns are, who, which, and what; de- 
monstratives are, this and that, with their 
plurals, these and those ; interrogatives are, 
who, which-, and what ; distributives are,. 
each, every, either, and neither, Each other 
refers only to two, one another to more than 
two. The indtjinite.1 .-are, some, other, any,, 
one, all, such, &c. ; and, lastly,, the com-, 
pounds are, myself, themselves-, &e. Rela- 
tive pronouns serve to connect. sentences like 
conjunctions; as, ' blessed, is the man who 
feareth the Lord/'&c. : ourstlf is only used 
in the regal style by sovereigns* 

RULES. 

1. Quakers, and some country people, say 
thou, thee, and ye ; but amongst others, cus-- 
torn has established the use of you in the 
nominative case of the second person sin- 
gular, but it should always have a plural 
verb. 2, Relatives-must agree with their an- 
tecedents and the nouns for which they stand 
in gender, number, and person ; as, * this is 
the friend whom I love ;' < this is the vice which 
I hate j' ' the king and queen had put on their 
robes;' ' the moon appears and she shines Jnui 



PRONOUN. 1 9 

the light is not her own.' 3. Who applies 
to persons, which to things, places, &c. ex- 
cept when a question is asked ; as, { which 
is the man r' 4. That is used chiefly to avoid 
repeating the words who or which too often. 
5. That is also used as a kind of relative; 

* who that has any sense of religion,' and 
{ the woman and the estates that became his 
portion.' 6. In what follows it is doubtful 
whether whom or which should be used ; as, 

* the number of inhabitants with whom (or 
with which) some cities abound/ and l the 
company with whom (or with which) he as- 
sociated. * 1. This and these relate to per- 
sons and things near, but that and those to 
such as are more remote. 8. Active verbs 
and prepositions expressed or understood, 
cause the pronoun following to be in the 
objective case ; as, I love her, by whom, 
give it me, i. e. to me. 9. Neuter verbs 
have the same cases of pronouns after as be- 
fore them ; ' it is I, it was she, it was they.' 
10. The relatives who, which, or that, are 
nominative cases to verbs, when no other 
nominative comes between them ; as, ' the 
master who taught us, the trees which are 



20 PRONOUN, 

planted.* 11. When some other word 
comes between the relative and the verb, 
the relative is governed by such word as its 
nominative case ; as, « he who preserves 
me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am' 
and whom I serve.' 12. When the relative 
is preceded by two nominatives of different 
persons, the relative and \evb may agree in 
person with either ; as, * I am the man who 
command you,' (or commands you) but the 
latter is the best. 13. Whose- is the pos- 
sessive case of who ; but of late years it is 
used by good writers as the possessive of 
which • as, < pleasure, whose nature is to 
deceive,' i. e. the nature of which is to 
deceive. 14. The pronoun it, by an Eng- 
lish idiom, is used in explanatory sentences, 
but adds nothing to the sense ; as, * it may 
be,' < it appears to me/ < How is it with you?' 
15. By the same idiom the same pronoun 
is used, thus < it is this that hurts you,' < it is 
a few great men who rules,' ■* it was the peo- 
ple who began.' 16. One or ones, used as 
follows, are made substantives, < one is apt 
to think the great ones ;' this, however, is 
not good language. 17. None is used in 



Pj&ONOtfN. 21 

both numbers, but it. more properly belongs 
to the plural' and no one is always singular; 
as, ' none are so deaf as they who will not 
hear,' i. e, no persons are so deaf, &c. ; none 
of his works can be purchased, i. e. not one of 
his works, &c. 18. The interjections O! ah! 
or oh ! require the objective case in the Jirsl 
person after them ; as, O me ! ah me ! but 
the nominative of the second person singular 
or plural ; as, * O thou villain ! O ye peo- 
ple !' ] 9. Some grammarians think that the 
words this, .that, some, and such, are pro- 
.nouns, when used separately from then* 
nouns ; as, ' this is mine, give me that, 
such were some of you :' yet the following 
words are adjectives ; as, ' this book is in- 
structive,' 'give me that hat,' 'some boys are 
good..' 20. Very often pronouns are omitted 
elHptically ; as, * my mother, brother, and 
sister,' &c. : but when very emphatical, they 
are retained and repeated ; as, not only my 
mother, but my brother, &c. 21. When 
pronouns are placed singly after the compa- 
rative particles than or as, they must be in 
the nominative case ; as, 4 he is better than 
I,' i. e. than I am : but if a verb or preposi- 



23 » PRONOUN. 

tion be understood, the pronouns must be in 
the objective case; as, 4 they love him better 
than me,' i. e. better than they love me. 22. 
The plural pronoun, others, is often used el- 
liptically ; as, ' she pleases some, but not 
others,' i. e. other persons ; he has got some 
books, but he wants others, i. e. other books. 
23. A demonstrative pronoun should not be- 
gin a sentence ; but a personal one in the no- 
minative case, should be put thus ; « they who 
sow in tears, shall reap,' &c. and not those 
who sow, &c. 24. We may use either the 
objective case of a personal pronoun, or one 
of the demonstratives in the middle of a sen- 
tence ; thus, ' we are not unacquainted with 
them, (or those) who are given to flatter,' &c. 
25. When two things are spoken of in prose 
or verse, that refers to the first, and this to 
the other; as, both wealth and poverty are 
temptations, thai tends to excite pride, this 
discontent.' — and, 

Self-love the spring of motion, arts the soul, 
Reason's comparing balance rules the whole; 
Man but for that no action could attend, 
And but for this were active for no end. 



PRONOUN. 23 

CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 
Improper* Proper. 

Charles was older Charles was older 
than him. than he. 

BOLINGBROKB, 



He was as covetous He was as covetous 
as her. swift. as she. 



He lays the suspicion He lays the suspicion 
on somebody, 1 know on somebody, I know 
not who. swift. not ivkom. 



Whom do they say Who do they say that 
that I am? swift. lam. 



Who should I meet Whom should I meet 
but my old friend. but my old friend. 



STEELE. 



It is her. Steele. It is she. 



He would not be per- tie would not be per- 
suaded but what I was su.aded but that I was in 
in fault. fault. 



24 



PRONOUN. 



Improper, Proper. 

' All fevers except All fevers except those 
what are called nervous, called nervous. 



I hope it is not I who I hope it is not I with 
you are displeased with. %vho?n you are displeased. 



It is not he that they It is not he with whom 
are angry with. they are angry* 



It is good to practise It is good to practise 

before a mirror, where- before a mirror, whereby 

by one -may see and any one may see and 

judge of their errors. judge of his errors. 

BLAIR. 



Objects could not be Objects could not be 
distinguished from each distinguished from one 
other. aLAiR. another. 



Two men ignorant of Two men ignorant of 
-one anothers language. each others language. 

BLAIR. 



VERB. 



2j 



improper. . Proper. 

Here are sight and Here are sight and 

feeling, and neither can feeling, and neither can 

■extend beyond their own extend beyond its own 

objects. blair. object. 



Here are several ob- Here are several ob- 
jects, and each of them jects, and each of them 
are addressed. is addressed. 

BLAIR. 



It might have been It might have been 
him, but it could not be he but it could not be /. 
me. 



Let him and I take a Let him and me take 
walk together. a walk together. 



A VERB 
Signifies to be, to do, or to suffer; as, < I am, 
I beat, I am beaten. Verbs have three 
voices, the active, (or transitive,) the pas- 
sive, and the neuter, (or intransitive). Five 
moods, the indicative ; as, I beat, or do beat, 
c 



2(5 VERB. 

or am beating; the imperative, beat thou; the 
potential, / may, might, would, or should 
beat; the subjunctive, if I- beat; and the infi- 
nitive, to beat or to be beaten. Five tenses, 
(or times) ; present, I beat, or do beat, or am 
beating ; imperfect I beat, or did beat ; per^ 
feet, I havebeat; pluperfect, I had beat; fu- 
ture, I shall or will beat. Verbs have also 
two numbers, and three persons in each num- 
ber ; as, I, thou, he, we, ye, they. There- 
are also irregular verbs, which chiefly differ 
in the past tenses ; as, teach, taught, begin, 
began, &c. Lastly, there are defective verbs, 
which want some of the tenses, or some of 
the persons; as, it rains, it snows, &c. The 
imperative mood prays and entreats, as well 
as commands; as, ' let thy will be done,' i. e. 
do thou let thy will be done, &c. 

RULES. 

1. A verb must agree with its nominative 
case in number and person ; as, I learn, thou 
art improved, the birds sing. 2. Active, (or 
transitive) verbs govern the objective case ; as, 
faith supports us ; virtue rewards them who 
follow her. 3. Neuter, or intransitive verbs, 

4 



VERB. 2f 

are only conductors to the noun or pronoun 
following,' but do not govern them, for we 
may observe, that the word which follows 
requires a preposition expressed or under- 
stood ; as, I walk a mile, i. e. for the space of 
a mile ; I ride a horse, i. e. upon a horse. 

4. One verb governs another in the infinitive 
mood; as, learn to do good. Sometimes to is 
omitted ; as, I heard him say so, i. e. to say so. 

5. The infinitive mood has much the nature 
of a substantive in its meaning, and frequent- 
ly is the nominative case; as, to play is 
pleasant. 6. The infinitive mood is often 
made absolute, and supplies the place of the 
conjunction that; as, * to conclude, i. e. that 
I may conclude ;' to begin with the first, to 
proceed, i. e. that I may begin, &c. 7. In 
the use of verbs that have a relation, the time 
must be preserved consistently through the 
sentence ; thus, instead of saying, the Lord 
hath given, and hath taken away, we must 
say, * the Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken 
away.' 8. Some adjectives may be said to 
govern the infinitive mood ; as, < he is eager 
to learn; she is worthy to be loved.* 9. 
Every relative must agree with its antecedent 

c2 



2^ VERB. 

in gender and number; as, my son is a good 
boy, he learns his lesson. 10. The relative 
is the nominative case to the verb, when no 
other nominative comes between it and the 
verb, as, ' the master who taught us ; the 
trees which are planted.' 11. When another 
nominative comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by some 
word in its own member of the sentence ; as, 
4 he who preserves me, to whom I owe my 
being, whose I am, and xvhom I serve, is eter- 
nal.' 12. The nominative case denoting the 
agent, generally goes before the verb; as, 
* the king on a sudden appeared,' but often it 
is placed after ; as, * on a sudden appeared 
the king;' * long live the king,' &c. 13. 
Every verb, exce.ptthe infinitive mood and 
the participle, .has a nominative expressed or 
understood;; as, * speak now, i. e. speak now 
thau or 3^,' &c. 14. Every nominative, ex- 
cept the case absolute, and when an address 
is made to a person, belongs to some verb 
expressed or understood ; as, ' to whom thus 
Adam,' i. e. to whom thus Adam said. 1 5. 
When the nominative has no personal tense, 
but is set before a participle, it is called the 



VERB. 29 

ease absolute ; as, 6 shame being lost, all vir- 
tue is lost ; and, .< that having been discussed, 
there is no occasion to resume it.' 16. When 
the relative is preceded by two nominative 
cases of different persons, the relative and 
verb may agree with either, but best with the 
first ; as, ' I am the man who commands 
you ;' or, ' I am the man who command 
yon. 7 IT. When a verb comes between two 
nouns, either of which may be understood as 
the subject of the affirmation, the verb may 
agree with either, yet not without regard to 
that to which it most naturally agrees; as, 
* his meat was locusts and wild honey:' * a 
great cause of the low state of industry were 
the restraints put upon it.' 18. A noun of 
multitude may have a singular or plural verb, 
yet not without regard to the import of the 
word, as conveying unity ox plurality of idea; 
as, * the parliament is dissolved ; the council 
were divided in their sentiments,' &c. 19. 
When two or more nouns are joined with a 
copulative conjunction in the singular number, 
they must have plural verbs ; as, ' Piato, So- 
crates, and Pythagoras, were wise men.' 20. 
When pronouns of different persons are dis- 



30 VERB. 

junctively connected, the verb must agree 
with that person which is placed nearest to it ; 
as, * I or you are to blame f you or I am to 
blame : * not they, but he, is the author of it.' 
21. When a disjunctive is placed between a 
singular noun or pronoun and a plural noun 
or pronoun, the verb is made to agree with 
the latter ; as, ■ < neither poverty nor riches 
were injurious to him.' I or they were of- 
fended. But the plural must be placed imme- 
diately before the verb. 22. In some com- 
plex sentences, when the nouns have a pre- 
position between them, there must be a sin- 
gular verb ; as, * prosperity with humility 
renders the possessor amiable ;' and, ■ not 
only his estate, but his reputation has suffered 
by it.' 23. The neuter verb to be, through all 
its variations has the same case after as before 
it; as, it is she, it was they, &c. 2L Let 
governs the objective case ; as, l let him be- 
ware, let me die the death of the righteous.' 
25. There is a peculiar neatness in beginning 
some sentences ; thus, ' were there no differ- 
ence there would be no choice :' this is using 
the subjunctive mood, i. e. if there were no 
difference, &c. 26. Great attention should 



VERB. 



31 



be paid in using the potential mood, espe- 
cially as to the signs must and ought, which 
are too frequently used for should; would is 
also often used instead of should, and can in- 
stead of may, &c. 



CONTRASTED EXAMPLE'S. 

Jjaiproper. Proper. 

There are a variety There is a variety of 

of virtues to be exer- virtues to be exercised, 
cised. 



What signifies good What signify good 
principles when the principles when the 
practice is bad. practice is bad. 



Great pains has been Great pains have been 
taken. taken. 



There's two or three There are two or 
of them. three of them. 



Here's only you and Here are only you 
me here. and I here. 



32 VERB. 

Improper. Proper. 

Where's those two or Where are those two 
three books, or three books. 



I am- now as well as I am now as well as 
when you was here. when you were here. 

POPE. 



If either of the two If either of the two- 
qualities are wanting. qualities is wanting. 

ADDISON. 



I have considered I have considered 

what have been said on what hath been said cji 

both sides. both sides. 

TILLOTSON. 



Each of these words Each of these words 
imply some object. implies some object. 

BLAIR. 



Neither of them are Neither of them is 
remarkable for preci- remarkable for preci- 
sion, blair, sion. 



VERB. 



33 



Improper. 
My heart, or my com- 
passion, begin to flow. 



Proper. 
My heart, or my com- 
passion, begins to flow. 



It were to be wished, It is to be wished, 
for the honour of his for the honour of his 
memory. blair. memory. 



Neither the one or Neither the one nor 

the other find a proper the other -finds a proper 

place in history. place in history. 

BLAIR. 



This manner of writ- This manner of writ- 
ing obtained amongst ing prevailed amongst 
the Assyrians, blair. the Assyrians. 



The reader soon wea- The reader is soon 
ries of this. blair. ivearied with this. 



Every audience is Every audience may 
very ready to tire. soon be tired. 

blair. 

C3 



34 VERB. 

Improper. , ,, Proper. 

This saying applies This saying is apph 
to the subject. cable to the subject. 

BLAIR. 



This sentence had This sentence would 
better be omitted. have been better omitted. 

BLAIR. 



If it shall now be en- If it should now be 

quired, what are the enquired, what are the 

proper sources, &c. proper sources, &c. 

BLAIR. 



These are words that These are words that 
we would take to be we should take to be 
synonymous, blair. synonymous. 



The difference can be The difference may 
clearly pointed out. be clearly pointed out. 

BLAIR. 



Passages could be Passages* might be 
produced to prove this, produced to prove this. 1 

BLAIR, 



VERB. 



Improper. 
If any should main- 
tain that sugar was bit- 
ter, and tobacco was 
sweet, &c. BLAIR. 



Proper. 
If any should main- 
tain that sugar 25 bitter, 
and tobacco is sweet. 



What he would have What he would have 
had him to have done. wished him to do, (or to 
blair. have done.) 



I intended to have I intended to write 
written yesterday to yesterday to you. 
you. 



I found him better I found him better 
than I expected to have than I expected to find 
found him. kitn. 



Those whom the Those whom the 
splendor of their rank splendor of their rank, or 
or the extent of their ca- the extent of their ca- 
pacity have placed on pacity, has placed on the 
the summit of life. summit of life. 

D-R. JOHNSON. 



36 PARTICIPLE. 

A PARTICIPLE 

Partakes both of the nature of the verb and 
the adjective. The active is known by end- 
ing in ing, and the passive often in ed or en, 
&c. as, loved, beaten, shaken. A participle 
differs from a verb, as it does not expressly 
assert or affirm any thing, and from an ad- 
jective, because it implies time; as if I say, 
4 the master is writing, or the horse is trot- 
ting ;' in that case I use the participle ; but if 
I say, c a writing master, or a trotting horse,' 
the same word's are adjectives, and have no 
reference to time. In common conversation 
we sometimes change the termination of the 
participles that end in ed, into si; as, * he 
drest himself: he surpast the other : but this, 
is not proper for written language., 

RULES. 

1 . Sometimes participles perform the office 
of substantives; as, * the beginning, good writ- 
ing.' &c. 2. Sometimes a participle governs 
the possessive case, and forms the case abso- 
lute ; as, * the general's having failed in his 
enterprize occasioned his disgrace.' 3. Ac- 



PARTICIPLE. S7 

tive participles also govern words in the same- 
manner as the verbs do, from which such 
active participles are derived; as, ' he is in* 
structing us, he was admonishing them.'' 4-. 
The present participle, with ths or •■ their* be- 
fore it becomes a substantive ; as, * these are 
the rules of grammar, by the observing 1 of 
which you may avoid mistakes:' and, .' much 
depends on their observing: of this rule, or of 
their neglecting it.' 5. Some grammarians 
think that we should never contract, either in 
writing or speakings those participles that end 
in ed, but others are of opinion that we should, 
at least in speaking, always contract them 
with an apostrophe, thus, * recovered, be- 
liev'd,' &c. yet the word beloved must not al- 
ways be contracted with an apostrophe. 



CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 

Improper. Proper. 

1 will write as the I will write as the 

ancient authors would ancient authors would 

have wrote. have ivritten, 

BOLINGBK.OKE. 



38 PARTICIPLE. 

Improper. Proper. 

You hit the manners You hit the manner* 
better than any other better than any other 
who has wrote since. who has written since. 

LORD LYTTLETON. 



The court had not The court had not 
wore off the manners, worn off the manners, 

&C» HUME. &C. 



I was mistaken in I mistook in that mat- 
that matter. pope. ter. 



The greatest regard The greatest regard 
was shew'd him. was shewn him. 



SWIFT. 



John the Baptist pre- John the Baptist pre- 

pared the way by pared the way by 

preaching of repen- preaching repentance. 
tance. tillotson. 



He having never seen He having never seen 
any of them, nor intends any of them > nor ™- 
it, till they appear in tending it, till they ap- 



pnnt, swift. 



pear in print. 



PARTICIPLE. 30 

Improper. Proper. 
Keeping one day in The keeping one day 
seven is God's com- in seven is God's com- 
mand, inand, 



A sick or drunk per- A sick or intoxicated 
son. blair. person. 



Before concluding Before this subject is 
this subject. blair. concluded. 



When by reading or When by reading or 
discourse we find our- discoursing we find our- 
selves convinced. selves convinced. 

ADDISON. 



It is as if he had It is as if he had 
writ on the subject be- written on the subject 
fore. temple, before. 



40 ADVERB. 

AN ADVERB 
Is joined to a verb, an adjective, and some- 
times to another adverb, to express some 
quality or circumstance ; as, he reads well, a 
truli/ good man, he writes very correctly. 
Some adverbs are compared ; as* soon, 
sooner, soonest ;, often, oftener, most often, 
&c. : those that end in ly are generally com- 
pared by more and most ; as, more wisely, 
most wisely, &c. The adverbs here,. there 
and where, have of late years been used in- 
stead of hither, thither, and whither; it must 
be allowed they sound better, but the latter/ 
are more grammatical. 

RULES. 

1. The same word in different places is a. 
noun, an adjective, or an adverb ; thus, if I 
say, ' where muck-is given, much is required,' 
the word much is a noun ; if it be said, ' much 
money has been expended,' it is an adjective; 
but if I say, » it is muck better to stay here 
than to go,' much is here an adverb. 2. 
Many adverbs are formed by a combination' 



ADVERB. ft 

of prepositions with adverbs of place ; as, 
hereof, thereof, &c. Sometimes the preposi- 
tion suffers no change, hut becomes an adverb 
by its application; as, ' he rides -about, he was 
near falling, do not after lay the blame on 
me.' 3. Adverbs are commonly placed be- 
fore adjectives, and after the verb ; as, a very 
pious man prays frequently ; sometimes ad- 
verbs precede the verb; as, vice generally 
creeps by degrees, I never was there, &c. 4. 
The words when, where, whence, whenever, 
&c. may be properly called adverbial con- 
junctions, because like conjunctions they join 
sentences, and yet like adverbs, they denote 
time or place; as, * I will give it you when 
you come to me.' 5. The adverb there, is 
often used as an expletive, i. e. a word that 
adds nothing to the sense; as, 'there is a 
person at the door,' but sometimes it is em- 
phatical; as, ' there was a man sent from 
God, whose name was John.' 6. The ad- 
verbs thence, whence, and hence, generally 
imply the preposition from before them; as, 
4 thence, (or hence) we learn, &c. i. e. from, 
thence, (or from hence) we may leasn.' %. 



42 ADVERB. 

Adverbs used in comparisons j as, ' than and 
as,' with the conjunctions, and, nor, or, he, 
connect like cases; as, ' she loves him better 
than me.' ' John is as tall as I.' * Neither he 
nor she can bring it to me, or her.' 8. Two 
negatives must not be used in the same sen- 
tence ; as, • he never did no good.' * I cannot 
by no means do it.' 9. Adverbs do not go- 
vern cases, and yet they require an appropri- 
ate situation in a sentence ; as, * he made a 
very sensible discourse, he spoke unaffectedly 
and forcibly, and was attentively heard by 
all.' A good taste, and the easy flow of the 
sentence, are the best rules to regulate in this 
respect. 10. A great number of divisions 
have been of adverbs, the principal of which 
are those of time, place, order, negation, and 
comparison. 11. Therefore, consequently, 
and accordingly, are adverbs when they give 
the sense of the passage, and are joined to 
and, if, since, &c. but when they only connect 
it, they are conjunctions. 



ADVERB. 



43 



CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 

Improper. ^ Proper. 

I shall endeavour to I shall endeavour to 

live suitable to a man live suitably to a man in 

in my station. my station. 

AOSfSON. 



It might be requisite It might be requisite 
for them to be exceed- for them to be exceed* 
ing full. blair. ingly full . 



He behaved himself He behaved himself 
conformable to that ex- conformably to that ex- 
ample, sprat. ample. 



My son can do the My son can do the 

business, whether I be business, whether I be 

present or no. present or not. 

NORRIS. 



I cannot by no means I cannot by any means 
allow this. . allow this. 



U ADVERB. 



Improper, Proper. 

Let a speaker have Let a speaker have 

never so good a reason ever so good a reason to- 

to be animated. be animated. 

BLAIR. 



We must not expect We must not expect 
to find study agreeable to find study always 
alwa J s - agreeable. 



From where did he From ivhence, (or 
tome ? from what place) did he 

come ?. 



He came from there. He-came from theme 
(or from that place.) 



Agreeable to this, is Agreeably to this is 
the following remark. the following remark. 

N.B. Respecting the misplacing of adverbs,, 
see Misplaced Expressions,, chap. 2d. 



CONJUNCTION. 45 

A CONJUNCTION 
Is used to connect sentences or words. Con- 
junctions are generally divided into two sorts. 
1. Copulative or connective, which serve to 
continue a sentence, by expressing an addi- 
tion, a supposition, a cause, &c. as he and his 
brother reside in London. * I will go if he 
will go with me.' 'You are happy, because you 
are good.' The principal of this sort are, 'and, 
if, because, also, than, that,' &c. 2. The 
disjunctive, w T hich not only connect the sen- 
tence, but express some opposition in mean- 
ing ; as, ' though he was frequently reproved, 
yet he did not reform.' « They came w r ith 
her, but went away without her.' The prin- 
cipal of these are, but, though, although, yet, 
except, or unless, he. Also^ as, -otherwise, 
since, and then, are sometimes adverbs ; for is 
sometimes a preposition ; save and except 
are sometimes verbs, and that is sometimes a 
pronoun. 

RULES. 

1. Copulative conjunctions generally con- 
nect the same moods and tenses of verbs, 



46 CONJUNCTION. 

and cases of nouns and pronouns: as, i can- 
dour is to be approved and practised.' * If 
thou earnestly desire and practise virtue, she 
will be found by thee, and prove a rich re- 
ward/ 2. If they connect different tenses, 
the nominative must be repeated : as, * he 
may return, but he will not continue.' ' She 
was proud, but now she is humble.' 3. Those 
conjunctions that connect any thing of a po- 
sitive nature require the indicative mood : 
thus, ' as virtue enters, so vice recedes.' Such 
as imply a doubt, have the subjunctive: as, 
' if I were to write, he would not regard it.' 
6 Unless he repent, he will not be pardon- 
ed.' 4. In some cases the subjunctive does 
not imply a doubt ; as, ' though he is poor, 
yet he is contented ;' * though he was rich, 
yet for our sakes he became poor.' 5. Con- 
junctions used in comparison agree with a 
verb or a preposition expressed or understood ; 
as, ' they loved hi in more than me,' i. e. 
than they loved me ; ' the sentiment is well 
expressed by Plato, but better by Solomon or 
Paul,' i. e. by Paul. 6 When the word 
neither is used in a sentence, nor must cor-- 



CONJUNCTION. 47 

respond with it ; but when either is made use 
of, the conjunction or must correspond. 
.7. Sometimes the conjunction that is omit- 
| ted ; as, « I beg you would come to me ;' 
* see thou do it,' i. e. that you would come, 
&c. but in many places it should be inserted ; 
I as, * it is just that the memory of the virtu- 
f ous should remain.' 8. The words so and as 
\ should correspond in a sentence : thus, c the 
t style of Tillotson is not so good as that of 
^ Atterbury.' 9. The" word as is often used 
\£ov a relative pronoun : as, 'let such as (who) 
*advise others look to their own conduct.' 
10. All the members of a sentence should be 
consistent, and especially those parts should 
correspond which are united by conjunctions: 
thus it is very inelegant to say, ' this dedica- 
tion may serve for any book that has, is, or 
may be published ;' it should be thus : * this 
. dedication may serve for any book that has 
been or shall be published.' 11. Very often 
conjunctions are properly omitted by ellipsis; 
as, * they confess the wisdom, power, good- 
ness, and love of their Creator,' i. e. the 
wisdom, and power, and goodness, &c. 



4« CONJUNCTION. 

12. The same conjunction should not be too 
often used in the same sentence. 



CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 

Improper. Proper. 

If he prefer a virtuous If he prefer a virtuous 

life, and is sincere in his life, and be sincere in 

profession, he will sue- his profession, he will 

ceed. succeed. 



The Parliament ad- The Parliament a"^-> 
dressed the King, and dressed the King, and >» 
has been prorogued. tvas prorogued. 



Anger may glance in- Anger may glance in- 
to the breast of the wise, to the breast of the wise, 
but will only rest in the but it will rest only in 
bosom of fools. the bosom of fools. 



We overlook the mer- We overlook the mer- 
cies in our possession, cies in our possession, 
and are searching after and search after those 
those which are out of which are out of our 
our reach. reach. 



CONJUNCTION. 49 

Improper. Proper* 

If thou had been dili- If thou hadst been di- 

gent thou would be more ligenk thou vuouldst have 

prosperous. been more prosperous. 



You and us enjoy You and we enjoy 
many privileges. many privileges. 



She and him are very She and he are very 
unhappy, unhappy. 



He is neither pious or He is neither pious 
learned, nor learned. 



I will come myself, or I will either come 
send my brother. myself or send my bro- 

ther. 



Unless he learns fast- Unless he learn faster, 
er, he will be no scholar, he will be no scholar. 



He is not as wise as' He is not so wise as 
"his brother. his brother. 

D 



50 



CONJUNCTION. 



Improper. Proper, 

He has not behaved He has not behaved 

/ as he ought to have as he ought, 
done. 



This is no other but This is no other than 
the book I want. the book I want. 



I wish I could do that I wish I could do such 
justice to his memory to justice to his memory, 
oblige the painter, &c. as to oblige the painter, 
&c. 



We should help such We should help such 
persons that need our persons as need our as- 
assistance. sistance. 



He has little more of He has little more of 
the scholar, besides the the scholar than the 
name. name. 



I must be so just to I must be so just as 
own -I did it. to own that I did it. 



Improper. 
He will not db it him- 
self, orletanbtherdoit. 



CONJUNCTION. $ I 

Proper. 
He will neither do it 
himself, nor let another 
do it. 



A stone is heavy, and A stone is heavy, and 

the sand' weighty, but a the sand weighty, but a 

fool's wrath is heavier fool's wrath is heavier 

than them both. than both. 



In the order as they In the order in which 
lie, they are not right. they lie, they are not 
right. 



This was such a sharp This was such a sharp 
reply, as cost him his reply, that it cost him 
Ylfe > his life. 



If he is that man as If he be such a man 
he is represented. as he is represented. 



D2 



52 PREPOSIT.IOX. 

Improper. Proper. 

And then he" would He would look at the 

look at the divisions of divisions of the chap- 

the chapters, and then ters, afterwards dip in- 

dip here and there in the to several parts of the 

book, and then return book, and then he would 

it. spen.ce. return it. 



A PREPOSITION 

Is a word set before other words, to shew 
their relation or dependance upon them, as 
will be plainly seen by the following striking 
example; ' he came, out of London in the 
morning, and went through Acton; -before 
twelve o'clock he arrived at Winchester, 
from thence, he posted to Newcastle, where 
I met with him.' Most grammarians divide 
prepositions into, first, the separable-, as, 
above, about, &c. and, secondly, the insepara- 
ble ; as, be, fore, mis, &c. used only in com- 
pound words. Some of the chief prepo- 
sitions are, by, from, with, of, to, in, into, 
up, upon, within, without, above, below, he- 
neath, under, before, behind, after, near, 
against, &c. Often prepositions are properly 



PREPOSITION. 55 

omitted" by ellipsis ; as, * he went into the 
abbeys, halls, and public buildings,' instead 
of, he went into the abbeys, into the halls, &LC. 
Much of the beauty of all languages consists 
in the proper use of prepositions. 

RULES. 

Prepositions at first only denoted relation 
of place, but now they express other rela- 
tions ; as, ' he is above disguise, we should do 
nothing beneath our character,' &c. 2. After, 
before, above and beneath, are sometimes 
used as adverbs; as, ' they had their reward 
soon after, he died long before f but if the 
words time or place be added, they are pre- 
positions ; as, * he died long before that 
time,' &c. 3. Prepositions govern nouns and 
pronouns in the objective case ; as, ' he came 
to me/rom my father with my sister..' 4. 
To, for, and from, are often understood ; as, 
* give me the book,' i. e. to me ; get me some 
paper,' i. e. get for me ; ' he was banished 
England,' i. e. from England. 5. The pre- 
position is often improperly separated from 
the relative which it governs ; as, « whom 



54, PREPOSITION, 

wilt thou give it to V i. e. to whom wilt thou 
give it? ' he is an author whom I am much 
delighted with/ i. e. with whom I am much 
delighted. 6. Different relations and senses 
must be expressed by various prepositions; as 
we properly say, ' we are disappointed of any 
thing when we could not get it, and disap- 
pointed in it, when we have it, and yet it 
does not answer our expectations. 7. The 
preposition betwixt, strictly speaking, is ap- 
plied only to two, between, to more than two, 
and among or amongst to many ; but amongst 
having a plural meaning, should not be made 
to correspond with each, and every, which 
are singular. 8. Participles are sometimes 
used as prepositions; as, ' excepting, re- 
specting, touching and concerning ;' as, ' they 
are all in fault, except (or excepting) him.' 
9. Some prepositions are very commonly 
shortened in conversation, but they ought not 
to be in composition ; as, ' he went a foot,' 
i. e. on foot ; they are a penny a piece, i. e. 
a penny for each ; he is a bed, i. e. in the 
bed. 10. It is difficult in some cases to say 
which of the two following prepositions 



PREPOSITION. $$ 

ought to have the preference ; as, < he is ex- 
pert at play, or he is expert in play,' &c. II. 
We should avoid separating the preposition 
Jar horn its noun or pronoun ; as, < It does 
not depend upon, nor is it to be decided by 
any point in history,' better thus ; 'it does not 
depend on any point of history, nor should it 
be decided by the same.' 



CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 
Improper. Proper. 

The style of Dean The style of Dean 
Swift is free of all affec- Swift is free from affec- 
tation. - blair. tation. 



It is wrong to place It is wrong to place 

any modern writer on any modern writer in 

the same rank, the same rank. 

BLAIR. 



Among * nation so In a nation so en- 
enlightened and acute. lightened and acute. 



BLAIR. 



56 PREPOSITION. 

Improper. Proper. 

He found the great- He found the greatest 
est difficulty of writing, difficulty in writing. 

HUME. 



You know the esteem You know the esteem 
I have of his philoso- that I have for his phi- 
phy. kames. losophy. 



This shall not make This shall not make 
me swerve out of the me depart from the 
path. Robertson. path. 



To which he was With which he was 
willing to comply.,, willing to comply.. 

BOLINGBROKE, 



Mankind are gene- Mankind are gene- 
rally averse from think- rally averse to exercise 
ing. Berkley. much thought. 



This discovery he This discovery he 
communicated with his communicated to his 
friends. swift. friends. 



-PREPOSITION. 57 

Improper. Proper. 

It is such a thing, I should not have 

that I should not have thought of such a thing, 
thought on. 



Who do you speak To whotn do you 
to ? speak ? 



Who do you enquire For whom do you en- 
for ? quire } 



He is a very different He is a very differ- 
man now to what he ent man now from what 
was formerly. he was formerly. 



The opinion seems to The opinion seems to 
gain ground amongst gain ground amongst 
every body. all sorts of people. 



I will call of my friend I will call on my 
to-day. friend to-day. 



It is more than I It is more than I 
thought for. thought of, (or than I 

conjectured.) 
D3 



5 3 INTERJECTION. 

Improper. Proper. 

He was made much He was made much 
on by his uncle. of by his uncle. 



He finished the work. He finished the work 
in the limited period. within the limited pe- 
riod. 



If I can prevail upon If I can prevail over 

him, him. :_ 



AN INTERJECTION 

Is a letter, or word placed between the parts 
of a sentence, without altering the construc- 
tion, and denotes a sudden emotion of the 
mind ; as, O ! oh ! ah ! alas ! Those of 
calling, are hem ! ho ! soho ! of requiring 
attention; are, lo ! behold! hark! request- 
ing silence, hush ! stop ! of salutation, hail ! 
all hail ! welcome ! of wonder, really ! 
strange ! of contempt, tush ! pish ! fie ! 
away ! poh ! of laughter, ha ! ha ! he ! of 
exultation, as, glorious ! huzza ! 



INTERJECTION. 59 

i 

RULES. 

I. The interjections, ah ! ah ! alas ! re- 
quire the objective case of a pronoun in the 
first person ; as, * O ! me ; ah ! me/ &c. but 
the nominative in the second ; as, ' O thou ! 
aye !' 2. There are a great number of vul- 
gar Interjections or exclamations, but they 
should be carefully avoided by polite speak- 
ers and good writers. 3. The ellipsis of the 
interjection is not very common ; it is, how- 
ever, sometimes used ; as, • oh, pity and 
shame ;' i. e. oh ! pity and oh shame, &c. 4. 
Interjections should not be too frequently 
used in good speaking or writing. When 
they are often repeated, instead of moving 
the passions, they appear as affectation, and 
must disgust every judicious person. 

N. B. There are no contrasted examples, 
of any importance, under interjections. 



60 AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 

I 

CHAP. II. 

VARIOUS CONTRASTED EXPRESSIONS OR PHRASES, NOT 
INCLUDED UNDER ANY OF THE FOREGOING PARTS OF 
SPEECH. 



FIRST, 
LOW OR AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 

Improper, Proper. 

The excuse can rare- Such an excuse can 
\y, if ever , be sustained, but seldom be admitted. 



Thus I have endea- Thus I have endea- 
voured to make the sub- voured more clearly to 
ject be better understood, illustrate the subject. 



He was fonder of no- He was too fond of 
thing, than of wit and wit and raillery, 
raillery. blatr. 



In his reasonings, for In his reasonings he 
the most part, he is Aim- is generally flimsy and 
sy and false, blair. false. 



AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 



6! 



Improper. Proper. 
The best French tra- The best French tra- 
gedies make not a deep gedies make not a sufii- 
enough impression on the cient impression on the 
heart. blair. heart. 



The French writers The French writers 
of sermons, study neat- of sermons,, study neat- 
ness in laying down their ness in dividing their 
heads. blair. subjects. 



When we read an When we read an au~ 

author without pleasure, thor without pleasure, 

we shall soon give over we shall soon cease to 

to read him at all. read him. 

BLAIR. 



This much is sufficient This is sufficient to 
to have said on the sub- be said on the subject 
ject of beauty. of beauty. 



BLAIR. 



This is the most use- This is the most use- 
ful art of u;hich men are ful art which men pos- 
possessed* blair,. sess. 



62 



AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 



Improper. Proper. 
I just express my I express my thoughts 
thoughts in the simplest in the most simple man- 
manner possible. ner. 

BLATR. 



We are every noiv and We are frequently in- 

then interrupted by un- terrupted by unnatural 

natural thoughts. thoughts. 

BLAIR. 



Bating this expres- Excepting this ex- 
sion, the rest is not sub- pression, the rest is not 
ject to reprehension. liable to reprehension. 



To our surprize, a To our surprize, a 
new member of a sen- new member of a sen- 
tence pops out. tence presents itself.- 

BLAIR. 



I have pitched upon I have selected this 
this moving story. moving story. 



BLAIR. 



AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 63 

Improper. Proper. 

No subject bids fair- No subject is more 

er for being favourable likely to be favourable 

to poetry. blair. to poetry. 



It is the burst of in- It is the language of 
spiration. blair. inspiration. 



Nature must always Nature must always 
have done somewhat. have done something. 



BLAIR. 



More instances can More instances may 
be quoted from Shakes- be quoted fiom Shakes- 
pear, than from all po- pear, than from all other 
ets put together. poets united. 

BLAIR. • 



Milton has chalked Milton has invented 

out for himself a new anew kind of English 

road in poetry. poetry. 

BLAIR. 



m AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 

Improper. Proper. 

Tillotsonis much out- Atterbury very much 

done by Atterbury, as excels Tillotson, as to 

to style. blair. style. 



If these be any Jioiv If these be in any 
connected. blair. manner connected. 



Delightful scenes Delightful scenes 

have a kindly influence have a beneficial effect 

upon the body as well upon the body, as well 

as the mind. as the mind. 

ADDISON, 



Those are arguments These are arguments 

which cannot be got which will stand against 

over by all the cavils of all the cavils of infide- 

infidelity. addison. lity.' 



We call up ideas into We call up ideas into 

our minds, by painting, our minds, by painting, 

descriptions, or any the descriptions, or any such 

like occasion. • means. 

ADDISON. 



AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 6S 

Improper. Proper. 

This is a picture of This is a picture be- 

my friend's. longing to my friend. 
) 

This woman married This woman married 

my son's wife's brother. my son's brother-in-law,. 



This is the sister of This is Mr. Brown's 
Mr. Brown's wife. sister-in-law. 



He gave me one of He gave me a book 
the books of my uncle's, lately belonging to my 
uncle. 



This is my wife's hro- This house belongs to 
ther's partner's house. the partner of my wife's 
brother. 



This matter X had a I was much inclined' 
great mind not to reply not to reply to this mat* 
to. collier, ter*. 



€6 AWKWARD EXPRESSIONS. 

Improper. Proper. 

A perfect union of Wit and judgment 

wit and judgment is one are very seldom united 

of the rarest things in in one person, 
the world. burke. 



I had as Ikf say a I would as readily 
thing after him, as after say a thing after hinvas 
another, bp.lowth. after another. 



The reader without The reader should not 
rejecting by the lump, entirely reject it, but 
should gather the plain gather the plain mean- 
meaning, kames. ing. 



We heartily go along We heartily unite 
with them in this. with them in this. 



dr. smith. 



It so happened that a It unhappily occur- 

controversy was agi- red, that a controversy 

tated between Addison took place between Ad« 

and Steel. dison and Steel. 

ftR. JOHNS. OX* 



MISPLACED EXPRESSIONS. 



67 



SECONDLY, 

MISPLACED AND INVERTED EXPRESSIONS. 

Improper. Proper. 

The subject which I The subject upon 
proceed upon. which I proceed. 

ADDISON. 

/ 



By the pleasures of By the pleasures of 

imagination, I mean on- imagination, I mean 

ly such pleasures as arise such pleasures only as 

originally from sight, arise originally from 

addison. sight. 



This kind of wit was 
very much in vogue a- 
mongst our countrymen 
about an age or two ago, 
who practised it purely 
for the sake of being 
witty. ADDISON. 



This kind of wit 
about an age or two ago 
was much in vogue a- 
mongstour countrymen, 
who practised it purely 
for the sake of being 
witty. 



S3 MISPLACED EXPRESSIONS. 

Improper. Proper. 

This was the temper This was the temper 
€>f mind he was then in., of mind in which he 
tillotson. was at that time. 



Considerable merit He has undoubtedly 
doubtless he has. considerable merit.. 

BLAIR. 



Great virtues he cer- He certainly had: 
tainly had. blair. great virtues. 



Of figures and orna* He is very full of fl- 
uents of every kind he gures and ornaments of 
is exceedingly fulL every kind. 

BLAIR. 



No contemptible ora~ He was By no means 
tor he was. blair. a contemptible orator. 



Of parables, the pro- The prophetical writi 
phetical writings are ings are full of parables. 

full. BLAJR, 



MISPLACED EXPRESSIONS. 



69 



Improper. Proper. 

.Sextus the fourth was Sextus the fourth was 

a^great collector of books a great collector, at 

at least. least of books. 



B.OLINGBROKE. 



The Romans under- 
stood liberty at least as 
well as we. swift. 



The Romans under- 
stood liberty, as well at 
least as we. 



It is folly to pretend 
to arm ourselves against 
the accidents of life, by 
heaping up treasures, 
which nothing can pro- 
tect us against but God. 

SHERLOCK. 



It is folly to pretend, 
by heaping up treasures, 
to arm ourselves against 
the accidents of life, 
against which nothing 
can protect us but God. 



1 allude to the article 
blind, in the Encyclope- 
dia Britannica, publish- 
ed at Edinburgh, in the 
year 1783, which was 
written by him. 

MACKENZIE,, 



I allude to the article 
blind, which was writ- 
ten by him, and pub- 
lished at Edinburgh, in 
the year 1783, in the 
Encyclopedia Britanni- 
ca. 



70 MISPLACED EXPRESSIONS'. 

Improper. Propei\ 

From a habit of sav- From a habit which 

ing time and paper, they have acquired at 

which they have acqui- the university, of saving ^* 

red at the university, time and paper, they v 

they write in so dimi- write in so diminutive a 

nutive a manner. manner. 

SWIFT. 



The two first are The first two are 
cherry trees, the other cherry trees, the other 
two are pear trees. two are pear trees. 



These things should These things should 
be never separated. never be separated. 



So well educated a A boy so well ediu 
boy, gives great hopes cated, gives great hopes 
to his friends. to his friends. 



We always should We should always 
prefer our duty to our prefer our duty to our 
pleasure. pleasures. 



MISPLACED EXPRESSIONS. 71 

Improper. Proper. 

The heavenly bodies The heavenly bodies 

are in motion perpetu- are perpetually in mo- 

ally. tion. 



If you are blessed na- If you be naturally 
turally with a good me- blessed with a good me- 
mory, continually exer- mory, exercise it conti- 
cise it. nually. 



We always find them We find them always 
ready when we want ready when we want 
them. them. 



There is a fine obser- To this purpose, 

vation in Aristotle to there is a fine observa- 

this purpose, which I tion in Aristotle, which 

have never seen quoted. I have never seen 

addison. quoted. 



There may remain a There may remain a 
suspicion, that we over- suspicion, that we over- 
rate the greatness of his rate the greatness of his 
genius, in the same man- genius in the same man- 



72 MISPLACED EXPRESS-IONS. 

Improper. Proper. 

ner as bodies appear ner as we over-rate the 

more gigantic, on ac- greatness of bodies that 

count of their being dis- are dis proportioned and 

proportioned and mis- misshapen, 
shapen. hume. 



The wise man is hap- The wise man is hap- 
py when he gains his py when he gains his 
own approbation, the own approbation, the 
fool, when he recom- fool when he obtains 
mends himself to the ap- that of others, 
plause of those about 
him. 



There is not any There is not any 
beauty more in one than beauty in one more than 
in another. in another. 



A great stone that I A great stone, that 

happened to find, after after a long search I 

a long search by the sea happened to find by the 

shore, served me for an sea shore, served me for 

anchor, an anchor. 



REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS, 73 

Improper. Proper. 

May not we say that May we not say that 
virtue is its own reward, virtue is its own reward 



I only spoke a very I spo ke only a very 

few words. f ew words. 



I was engaged for- I was formerly en* 
merly in that business. gaged in that business. 



We do those things We frequently do 
frequently which we these things of which 
repent of afterwards. we afterwards repent 



By doing often the By often doing the 
same thing it becomes same thing it becomes 
iiabitual * habitual. 



THIRDLY, 

REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS. 
Let us proceed to Let us proceed to con- 

considertfthe style of sider the style* of Ian 

language. blair. gua ge. 

E 



7* REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS. 

To unite together copi- To unite copiousness 
oasness and precision. with precision, 

BLAIR. 



What goes before What goes before 
and immediately follows and immediately foL- 
after.. blajr. lows. 



Let us consider of the Let us consider the 
means. tjlair. means. 



The more that this The more this track 

track is pursued, the is pursued, and the more 

more that eloquence is eloquence is studied, the 

studied, the more shall better we shall be 

we be -guarded. guarded. 

BLAIR. 



Provided always that Provided always such 
such unity be preserved, unity be preserved. 



BLAIR. 



tt'EDUNDAKT EXPRESSIONS. 75 

Improper. Proper. 
It must give pleasure It must give pleasure 
if we shall find the dig- when we find the dig- 
nity of the composition nrty of the composition 
adequate to the impor- adequate to the impor- 
tance of the matter. tance of the matter. 

BLAIR. 



We should close with Wc should close witk 

that side which appears that side which appears 

the most safe and the the safest and most 

most probable. probable. 

ADDISON. 



Few words in the En- Few words in our 
gHsh language are em- language. are used in a 
ployed in a more loose more loose sense than 
and uncircumscribed fancy and imagination, 
sense than those of the 
fancy and the imagina- 
tion. ADDISON. 

£ 2 



m 



REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS. 



Improper. 
The very first disco- 
very of it strikes the 
mind with inward joy, 
and spreads delight 
through all its faculties, 

ADDISON. 



Proper. 
The first discovery of 
it strikes the mind, and 
fills it with great de- 
light. 



Reading books of con- Reading books which 

trqversy, which are writ- are written on both 

ten on both sides of the sides, in points of faith. 
question, in points of 

faith. ADDISON. 



The doubt which was The doubt which was 

laid revives again and laid revives and shews 

shews itself. itself. 

ADDISON. 



Every man who sees 
the divine power and 
wisdom in every object 
on which he casts his eyes 

ADDISON. 



Every man who sees 
the divine power and 
wisdom in every object 
around him. 



REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS. 77 

Improper. Proper. 

I went home full of a I went home full of 
great many serious re- serious reflections. 



Sections. 

GUARDIAN. 



This is the sum and This is the substance 
substance of what he of what he says on the 
says, bentley* subject, 



By attending to this By attending to this 

we may receive great we may receive great 

eotiifort and consolation, consolation. 

TILLOTSON. 



True believers of True believers of 

every denomination on every denomination on 

earth make up the earth compose the 

church and people of church of God. 

God. BAXTER. 



It was the privilege It was the privilege 

and birth-right of every of every citizen to 

citizen to rail aloud speak in public. 
and in public, swift. 



78 



REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS* 



Improper. Proper. 

To contain the spirit A restraint from an^ 

of anger is the worthi- ger is the most worthy 

est discipline which we discipline under which 

can put ourselves to* we can put ourselves.. 

STEELE. 



It is now nine months It. is nine months 
ago since I was in that since I was in that 
j>lace. Steele. place. 



They returned back They returned to the 

again to the same city city from whence they, 

from whence they came came. 
forth 



This may afford- some This may afford-' both; 
profit, and furnish some profit and amusement, 
amusement. 



There hnothmgvMch Nothing disgusts us ; 

sooner disgusts us than sooner than the empty 

the empty pomp of Ian- pomp of language., 
guage. 



REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS. 79 

Improper. Proper. 
Thought and Ian- Thought and lan- 
guage act and react guage act upon eack 
upon each other mutu- other mutually, 
ally. 



Less capacity is re- Less capacity, but 

quired for this business, more time, is required 

but more time is ncces- for this business. 
sary. 



Their interests were Their interests were 
dependent upon,and'mse- inseparably connected* 
parably connected with 
eack other. 



If I mistake not, I I think he is im- 
think he is improved proved both in know- 
both in knowledge and ledge and behaviour, 
behaviour. 



I shall in the first place I shall begin with the 
begin with the defects, defects, and then shew 
and proceed afterwards its excellencies, 
to shew the excellencies 
of it. 



80 



REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS. 



Improper. Proper* 
This agreement of This agreement of 
mankind is not confined mankind is not con- 
to the taste solely. fined to the taste. 



The other species of The other species of 

motion are incidentally motion are incidentally 

blended also. blended* 

HARRIS. 



A friend exaggerates A friend exaggerates 

a man's virtues, an ene- a man's virtues, an 

my infantes his crimes* my his crimes. 

ADDISON. 



Many never heard Many never heard 
such tidings of good such good tidings. 



nexus. 



He did not mention He did not mention 
Leonora, nor that her Leonora, mot her fa- 
father was dead. ther's death. 



REDUNDANT EXPRESSIONS. 81 

Improper. Proper. 

Her extraordinary Her extraordinary 

beauty was such, that it beauty struck observers 

struck observers with with admiration,, 
admiration. 



By a multiplicity and 
variety of words the 
thoughts and sentiments 
are not set off and ac- 
commodated, but, like 
David dressed out and 
equipped in Saul's ar- 
mour, they are encum- 
bered and oppressed. 



By a multiplicity of 
words the sentiments 
are not set off and ac- 
commodated, but, like 
David equipped in 
Saul's armour, they are 
encumbered and op- 
pressed. 



A shall in the first I shall first treat of 

place treat of the cause, the cause, and then (or 

and, then secondly, con- next) consider its ef- 

sider the effects of it. fects. 



E 3J 



S2 DIVIDED SENTENCES; 



CHAP. III. 

OF DIVIDED AND TRANSPOSED, 
SENTENCES. 



EIRST, 
DIVIDED SENTENCES- 

Too long. Divided. 

Though in yesterday's In yesterday's paper 

paper we shewed how we have shewn that 

every thing that is great, every thing which is 

new, or beautiful, is apt great, new, or beautiful, 

to affect the imagination is apt to affect the ima-- 

with pleasure, we must gination with= pleasure.. 

own that it is impossi- We must own that it is 

jble for us to assign the impossible for us to as- 

necessary cause of this sign the efficient cause 

pleasure,, because we of this pleasure, because 

know neither the nature we know not the nature 

of an idea nor the sub- either of an idea, or of 

stance of a human soul, the human soul ; all that 

and therefore; for want we can do therefore, in, 

of such a light, all that speculations of this kind, 

we can do in specula- is to reflect on the ope- 



DIVIDED SENTENCES^ 83 

Too long. Divided. 

tions of this kind, is to rations of the soul which 
reflect on those opera- are most agreeable, and 
tions of the soul that are to range under proper 
most agreeable, and to heads what is pleasing 



range under their pro- 
per heads what is 
pleasing or displeasing 
to the mind, without be- 
ing able to trace out the 
several necessary and 
efficient causes from 
whence the pleasure or 
displeasure arises.. 



Upon surveying the 
annals of past ages, it 
seems that the greatest 
geniuses have been sub- 
ject to this historical 
darkness, as is evident 
in those great lights of 
antiquity, Homer and 
Euclid, whose writings 
indeed enrich mankind 
with perpetual stores of 



or displeasing to the 
mind. 



Upon surveying the 
annals of past ages, it 
seems that the greatest 
geniuses have been sub- 
ject to this historical 
darkness. This is evi- 
dently the case with re- 
gard to those great 
lights of antiquity, Ho- 
mer and Euclid. The 
writings of these illus- 



84 DIVIDED SENTENCES. 

Too long. Divided. 

knowledge and delight, trious authors enrich; 
but whose lives are for mankind with perpetual 
the most part concealed stores of knowledge and 
in impenetrable dark- delight, but their lives 
ness. taylor. are for the most part 

coucealed in impenetra- 
ble darkness. 



The sun approaching 
melts the snow, and 
breaks the icy fetters of 
the main, where vast 
sea monsters pierce 
through floating islands 
with arms which can 
withstand i the crystal 
rock; while others, who 
ofthemselves seem great 
as islands, are by their 
bulk alone armed against 
all but man, whose su- 
periority over creatures 
of such stupendous size 
and force should make 
him mindful of his pri- 



The sun approaching; 
melts the snow, and 
breaks the icy fetters of 
the main. Here vast 
sea monsters pierce 
through floating islands 
with arms which can. 
withstand the crystal 
rock, whilst others, 
which of themselves 
seem great as islands,, 
are by their bulk alone, 
armed against all but 
man. The superiority 
which he possesses over 
creatures of such stiir 
pendous size and force 



DIVIDED SENTENCES. 
Too long. Divided. 



85 



vilege of reason, and should make him mind- 
force him humbly to a- ful of his privilege of 
dore the great composer reason, and force him 
of those wonderous humply to adore the 
frames, and the author great composer of these 
of his own superior wonderous frames, and 
wisdom. the author of his own 
sHAFTESbURY. superior wisdom. 



Boast not thyself of 
to-morrow, for thou 
knowest not what a day 
may bring forth; and, 
for the same reason, de- 
spair not of to-morrow, 
for it may bring forth 
good as well as evil,, 
which is a ground for 
not vexing thyself with 
imaginary fears ; for the 
impending black cloud, 
which is regarded with 
so much dread, may pass 
by harmless; or though 
it should discharge the 



Boast not thyself of 
to-morrow, because thou, 
knowest not what a day 
may bring forth. For 
the same reason despair 
not of to-morrow, it may 
bring forth good as well- 
as evil. Vex not thy- 
self with imaginary 
fears. The impending 
black cloud, which is re- 
garded with so much 
dread, may pass by 
harmless, or though it 
should discharge the 
storm, yet before it 



S'6 DIVIDED SENTENCES. 

Too long. Divided. 
storm, yet before it break, thou raayst be- 
break thou mayst be lodged in that lowly- 
lodged in that lowly mansion which no 
mansion whieh no storms ever touch, 
storms ever touch. 



Without some degree 
©f patience exercised 
under injuries, (as of- 
fences and retaliations 
would succeed one ano- 
ther in endless train,) 
human life v/ould be 
rendered a state of per- 
petual hostility. 



Without some degree 
of patience exercised 
under injuries, human, 
life would be rendered 
a state of perpetual hos- 
tility. An implacable 
spirit would cause of- 
fences and retaliations 
to succeed one another 
in endless train. 



If your hearts secret- 
ly reproach you for the 
wrong choice you have 
made, (as there is time 
for repentance and re- 
treat, and a return to 
wisdom is always ho- 



If your hearts re- 
proach you for the 
wrong choice you have 
made, bethink your- 
selves that the evil is not 
irreparable. Still there 
is time for repentance 



TRANSPOSED SENTENCES. 87 

Too long. Divided. 

nourable) bethink your- and retreat, and a return 
selves that the evil is to wisdom is always ho- 
not irreparable. nourable^ 



*.*** Long sentences were formerly much in 
use, but of late years not only French writers,.. 
but-the best English authors, generally use such as 
are shorU The parenthesis also was very, com- 
mon, but now it is seldom used, except in some. 
explanatory sentences. 



SECONDLY, 

TRANSPOSED OR VARIED SENTENCES.. 

Good. Better, 

lam willing, pro- If it may be done with 

vided it may be done safety, I am willing to 

with safety, to forgive remit all that is past, 
all that is past. . 



88 TRANSPOSED SENTENCES. 

Good. Better. 

The Roman state, in In proportion to the 
proportion to the in- increase of luxury, the 
crease of luxury,, evi- Roman state evidently 
dently declined. declined. 



That greatness of If that greatness of 

mind which shews itself mind, which shews it- 

in dangers and labours, self in dangers and Ia- 

if it want justice is hours, be void of justice,, 

blameable.. it is blameable. 



The sister was less The brother deserved 
reprehensible than her censure more than his 
brother.. sister. 



I intend to be at the I will attend the con- 
conference, unless it ference if I can do it 
should be inconvenient, conveniently. 



He who lives always It is a continual war- 
in the bustle of the fare to live perpetually 
world lives in a perpe- in the bustle of the 
tual warfare. world,. 



TRANSPOSED SENTENCES. 89 

Good. Better. 
True religion teaches Gentleness and affa- 
irs to be gentle and affa- bility are the genuine 
ble. effects of true religion* 



Improvement and Industry generally 
pleasure are the pro* produces both improve * 
ducts of industry * meat and pkaaune,. 



We may innocently The advantages of 

gain the advantages of this world, even when 

fliis world, but even innocently gained, are 

then they are uncertain uncertain blessings., 
blessings. 



Using ail the pru- Whilst you use all the 
dence which reason can prudence which reason 
suggest, let your pray- can suggest, let your 
ers at the same time prayers continually as- 
continually ascend to eend to God for sup- 
God for support. ' port. 



SO SIMILE, METAPHOR, ALLEGORY 



CHAP. IF. 



Qt THE PRINCIPAL FIGURES OF SPEECH* 



Experience proves, that plain language is 
not sufficient for all the purposes of good 
writing and speaking. Some knowledge of 
rhetoric therefore is necessary, and a proper 
use of the figures of speech will not only 
embellish the style, but will actually render 
our ideas and sentiments more clear and 
forcible. The following are some of the 
principal tropes and figures, viz. 

1. A SIMILE, METAPHOR, AND AN 
ALLEGORY, 

These are not synonymous, but being all 
founded on similitude, and the same rules 
being very nearly applicable to either of 
them, they are here placed together.. 



SIMILE, METAPHOR, ALLEGORY. 91 

A simile or comparison is when two ot 
$iore things, having some resemblance, are 
compared with a view to exalt or degrade a 
person or thing, or to explain something,; 
thus, when we wish to praise or dispraise a 
woman, we say» that i she looks like an. 
angel,* or, * is as fickle as the wind.* Many 
similes have not much to do with the imagi- 
nation, but chiefly with the understanding* 
Of this kind are most of those in the Bible, 
and in various other books. 

A metaphor is also founded on likeness,, 
but differs from a simile ; thus, when it- is 
said that any man is as bold as a lion, a simile 
is used, and we speak comparatively, but if it 
be said, such a man is a Hon, we speak meta- 
phorically. This is, perhaps, the most fre- 
quent and diversified of all the tropes which: 
we use. 

An allegory is a chain of tropes, or the 
continuation of several metaphors* &c. united 
in one general description of any thing, as a, 
constellation includes, many stars, &c. Fables 
and parables are much the same as allegories,, 
and' they are in words what an hieroglyphic^!; 



£2 SIMILE,. METAPHOR, ALLEGORY. 

representation is in colours, or in a picture. 
The Bible has many allegories, especially a 
striking one, in Psalm Ixxx. from ver. 8. 
to the end. * Thou hast brought a vine out 
of Egypt, thou hast cast out the heathen, and 
planted it, thou preparest room for it, and 
didst cause it to take deep rooty and it filled 
the land, he. 

We have also a fine allegory in Priori 
Menry and Emma : 

Did I but purpose to embark with thee 
On the smooth surface of a summer sea, 
While gentle zephyrs play with prosperous gales, 
And fortune's favours fill the swelling, sails, 
But would forsake the ship, and make the shore, 
When the winds whistle and the tempests roar > 
No, Henry, no, one sacred oath has tied y 
Our lives, one destiny our fate shall guide, > 
Nor wild, nor deep, our common way divide. ■) 



RULES.. 

1. Similes or metaphors should not be 
taken from mean things, unless on purpose 
to degrade. 2. They should not be taken 



METONYMY AND SYNECDOCHE. 9S 

from what is but little known. 3. They 
should not be introduced at the beginning of 
a subject, and should be well adapted. 4. 
We must not join different metaphors in 
one sentence^ nor crowd too many together, 
and they must not be strained. 5. A sen- 
tence must not be partly figurative and partly 
literal. 6. As to allegories, they are not so 
much used in prose as formerly, because our 
language is not so well adapted to them as 
Greek or Latin, and besides, they require 
uncommon skill in making all the parts con- 
sistent. 



2. A METONYMY AND A SYNECDOCHE. 

These also are not synonymous, but are 
here placed together for the same reasons as 
before-mentioned. 

A metonymy is a trope, whereby names 

are changed ; as when, 1 . the cause is put 

for the effect ; thus we say, * we read Milton, 

i. e. Milton's works-;' or, 2. the effect for 

the cause ; thus, 'grey hairs should be re- 



m METONYMY AND SYNECDOCHE, 

spected, i. e. old persons should be respect- 
ed. ' 3. A common name for a proper name ; 
as, ' the Roman orator, i.*e. Cicero.' 4. A 
proper name for a common, < a Nero, i. e. a 
tyrant.' 5. The container for the thing con* 
tained; as, ' the kettle boils, i. e. the water 
in the kettle.' 6. A sign for the thing sig- 
nified; as, the faculty for physic ; the pro*. 
fession, or the long robe, for the law,^and the 
cloth for divinity, &c. 

A synecdoche (which is also called the 
comprehending trope) is when any thing 
more or less is put for the precise object^ thus, 

1 . a part is put for the whole, when we use 
the word waves for the sea, the point for tbe 
sword, or the head for the whole person. 2. 
The whole for a part, as when we say, ' the 
whole city went out, or the town is depopu- 
lated, i. e. a great part of the city or town, &c.' 

2. The singular for the plural, and the contra* 
ry ; as, * a man is justified by faith, i.-e. men 
are justified by faith;' and on the contrary, 
authors and preachers, to avoid egotism, very 
often say, we shall consider the subject, when 
in fact only one individual is meant. 3. A 



PROSOPOPEIA AND APOSTROPHE. 9b 

certain number for an uncertain ; thus we 
often read the numbers, three, seven, twelve, 
&c. which may mean more or less : also when 
we say, I told him of it an hundred times, i. e, 
many times, &c. 

R0LES. 

1. Each of these has more subdivisions, 
which may be seen in Gibbons's or Holmes's 
Rhetoric. 2. In order to distinguish these 
two-, when we say one thing and mean ano- 
ther depending on it, that is a metonymy, but 
when we say one thing and mean another, 
which is more or less of the same kind, this is 
a synecdoche. 



3. A PROSOPOPEIA AND APOSTROPHE. 

For the foregoing reasons these are like- 
wise placed together. 

A prosopopeia or personification is a figure 
of speech which attributes life and human 
speech to things inanimate, making not only 
Jocks and fields, but even ideal things, as 



96 PROSOPOPEIA AND APOSTROPHE, 
fame, &c. to express human actions, or to 
listen to what is said. This figure is very 
often used in conversation, as well as in writ- 
ing ; thus we say, « the earth smiles with 
plenty, the dry ground thirsts for rain, and 
ambition is restless?' &c. ; the following de- 
scription of fame is a beautiful example in 
poetry : 

Fame, of all things the swiftest in its course, 
By motion gathers and augments its force ; 
Low creeps at first, but after swells its size, 
Runs thro* the w r orld, and tow'rs into the skies. 

VIRGIL. 

The Bible has a great number of examples 
of this sort, and especially the following : 
* When Israel went out of Egypt, and the 
house of Jacob from a people of strange lan- 
guage, the sea saw it and fled, Jordan was 
driven back. The mountains skipped like 
rams, and the little hills like lambs, &c. 

An apostrophe is nearly connected with 
the former, but is chiefly limited, either to 
give an ideal presence to dead or absent per- 



PROSOPOPEIA AND APOSTROPHE. 97 

sons, or else to make inanimate things listen 
to what is said. By this figure the speaker 
seems to turn aside from the subject, and to 
address something, and generally appeals for 
the truth of what is advanced. There is an 
example of this in the following well-known 
passage of scripture : ' Death is swallowed 
up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ! 
O grave ! where is thy victory /' What fol- 
lows is a good poetical apostrophe : 

Phillips, whose touch harmonious could remove 
The pangs of guilty pow'r and hapless love, 
Rest here, disturbed by poverty no more, 
Find here that calm thou gav'st so oft before : 
Sleep undisturb'd within this peaceful shrine, 
Till angels wake thee with a note like thine. 

DR. JOHNSON. 

Sometimes it happens, that a prosopopeia 
and an apostrophe are united, as in the fol- 
lowing example from Scripture: * thou 
sword of the Lord ! how long will it be ere 
thou be quiet? put thyself up into thy scab- 
bard, rest, and be still ! How can it be quiet, 

F 



9S HYPERBOLE. 

seeing the Lord hath given it a charge against 
Askelon, and against the sea shore? there 
hath he appointed it. 

RULES. 

1 . These being bold figures, they must be 
kept within bounds, especially in prose. 2. 
Homer and Milton have used these figures 
to great advantage in poetry. 3. The En- 
glish language is very favourable to each of 
these figures, because all nouns (excepting 
those which signify male or female objects,) 
being neuter, we can easily make the latter 
male or female, by personifying them. 



4. AN HYPERBOLE, 

Called also exaggeration, is a trope which 
is used to magnify or diminish any thing be- 
yond reality, in order to praise or dispraise 
it; thus, we often say of a woman, * she is 
as- fair as an angel ;' or, if a bad man, that 
his heart is as black as Satan's. It is very 
well explained in poetry, thus, 



HYPERBOLE. 99 

Hyperbole soars high, or sinks loo low, 

He touch'd the skies— a snail don't crawl so slow. 

This is often used in the Bible, viz. Deut. 
ix. 4. Cities fenced up to heaven; and Joel 
iii. 18. The hills shall flow with milk, and the 
mountains with wine. It is also very often 
used in common conversation; as, when we 
say any thing is * as hard as a stone,' or, ' as 
soft as silk.' An hyperbole is a metaphor, 
carried to the highest degree of boldness. 

The following is a striking example of a 
poetical hyperbolical description of rage and 
despair, in the character of Satan : 

Me miserable ! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath and infinite despair ? 
Which way I fly is hell ; myself am hell, 
v And in the lowest depth, a lower deep 
Still threatning to devour me opens wide, 
To which the hell I suffer seems an heav'n ! 

MILTON. 
RULES. 

1. This is a trope, (that is, a figure of a 
name J when we call a drunkard, a swine, &c. ; 
f 2 



100 ANTITHESIS. 

bat it is a figure, (that is a figure of thought) 
when we say, that * fame flies swifter than 
the wind,' &c. 2. It is always better to use 
this figure in magnifying any object, than in 
diminishing any thing. 3. It should never 
be used on trivial subjects, nor yet on any 
that have much tenderness; as, pity, grief, 
&c. ; it is best employed on strong or majestic 
subjects, as earthquakes, battles, thunder, the 
day of judgment, despair, &c. 4. We should 
never introduce this figure suddenly, but the 
reader ought to be prepared for it, and it must 
be comprehended in as few words as possible. 
5. Though this figure goes beyond belief, yet 
it is not beyond rules; it must not be carried 
too far, or it will be bombast, and yet nothing 
but good sense can ascertain its limits, or re- 
gulate its application. 



AN ANTITHESIS 



Is a figure whereby we illustrate a subject by 
an opposition of words or thoughts, in the 



ANTITHESIS. 101 

way of contrast. Such is that of Cicero in 
his oration against Catiline, * on one side 
stands modesty, on the other impudence; on 
one fidelity, on the other deceit ; here piety, 
there sacrilege ; here continence, there lust, 9 
&c. We have also a fine poetical example 
in the following couplet: 

Tho-' deep, yet clear, tho* gentle, yet not dull, 
Strong without rage, without o'erflowing, full, 

DENHAM. 

The Bible also contains many examples of 
this figure, especially in the book of Proverbs, 
Some of our best sentimental writers very 
often use this figure ; take the following exam- 
ple from one of them ; * Labour is odious to 
the idle, fasting to the glutton, want to the 
covetous, shame to the proud, and strict laws 
to the wicked. ' The works of some old au- 
thors are too full of antithesis's, and perhaps 
the moderns have not enough of them. 

RULES. 

1 . Every thing exhibited in contact should 
be different in sense, as well as in sound, or in 



10$ IJtONY. 

appearance. 2, Very suitable words should 
be used in that which is contrasted, and as 
few as possible, the difference also must 
be very apparent. 3. If contrasts be just 
and striking, they help the memory, and are 
very pleasing and instructive, especially con- 
trasted examples. 



6. THE IRONY 

Is called the mocking trope, because when 
it is used, the contrary is meant to what is 
expressed, as when we call a silly person * a 
Solomon, 'or an unchaste woman, 'a Penelope.' 
It is sometimes to be met with in Scripture, 
especially in 1 Kings xviii. 27. where Elijah 
says to the worshippers of Baal, < Cry aloud, 
for he is a God, he is talking, or on a journey, 
or asleep,'' kc. An antiphrasis signifies an 
ironical word or name, as the first examples 
shew, and an irony signifies the contrary 
meaning of a sentence, as the other example 
proves. 



INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMATION. 103 
RULES. 

1. It is greatly to be lamented that this 
way of writing or speaking should ever be 
used to ridicule piety, or to encourage per- 
sonal abuse. 2. It may be properly made 
use of to expose sin and error, and also to 
reprove wilful ignorance. 



T. AN INTERROGATION AND 
EXCLAMATION. 

An interrogation, in grammar, onjy signi- 
fies asking a question ; but as a rhetorical 
figure, it is used as a challenge for the 
impossibility of contradiction, and is called 
an erotesis. There is a striking example of 
this in the following, passage of Scripture: 
* God is not a man that he should lie, neither 
the son of man, that he should repent. Hath 
he said it ? and shall he riot make it good f 

An exclamation is chiefly used as an in- 
terjection in grammar, but as a rhetorical 



i0 * PERIPHRASIS. 

figure, it expresses the language of passion 
on various occasions ; as, joy, grief, admira- 
tion, and the like. It is called in rhetoric, 
ephonesis, and is used in Scripture in a great 
variety of senses; as, « O wretched man that 
I am I O Lord, how excellent is thy name ! 
O happy people that are in such a case ! 

RULES. 

1. Neither of the above should be used on 
mean or trivial occasions. 2. They should 
not be crowded in an essay, or on any sub- 
ject. 3. When used judiciously, they gene- 
rally agitate the hearer or reader with similar 
passions. 



8. A PERIPHRASIS, 

Or circumlocution, is a figure wherein we use 
more words to express any thing than are 
absolutely necessary. Conciseness is truly 
excellent on most subjects, but it would not 
be proper always, especially in poetry. In 



PERIPHRASIS. 105 

prose also, it is necessary sometimes to use 
the periphrasis, in order to give beauty and 
variety to language; thus, instead of using 
the word death, it is called the loss of life, 
and instead of repeatedly saying, Homer, we 
use a periphrasis, and call him ' the writer of 
the Trojan war ;' or speaking of Garrick, we 
say, * the English Roscius ;' thus also in 
Scripture, Abraham is called, * the father of 
the faithful, and John is described as * the 
disciple whom Jesus loved.' The following 
short poetical explanation of this figure, will 
give an intimation how it is used in poetry. 

Periphrasis takes many words for one, 

' Now night's pale empress quits her silver throne/ 

RULES. 

1. This figure is absolutely necessary in 
poetry, and without it prose would be 
poor. 2. If it be used too much in prose, it 
will make our style too florid, and the pe- 
riods too long. 3. The principal use of this 
figure is to give variety to language, but we 
must be careful not to be too diffuse, or to 
use redundancies. 

r 3 



106 PROLEPSIS. 



9. A PROLEPSIS, 

Or anticipation, is a figure wherein the 
speaker or writer foreseeing an objection 
that may be raised against what is said, gives 
an answer. There are many instances of this 
figure in the sacred Scriptures, particularly 
Rom. vi. 15. ' Shall we sin, because we are 
not under the law, but under grace ? God for- 
bid.' It is also thus poetically explained. 

Prolepsis to prevent, objects and answers too, 
Great things you'll say, but not too great for you. 

This figure is generally used by first sta- 
ting a precept, then mentioning the objection, 
and immediately after answering it; thus it 
is said in Prov. iii. 9. * Honour the Lord with 
thy substance \ but some may object and 
say, if I do this, I shall soon greatly impo- 
verish myself; this is answered in the next 
verse, * so shall thy barns be filled with 
plenty,'' which proves that we shall be repaid. 



VISION. . 107 



RULES. 



L Although this figure may be used to 
favour any.bad thing, yet it is very useful to 
defend truth and innocence. 2. The objec- 
tion should be fairly stated, and the answer 
should not be long, but very plain and satis- 
factory, or else the objection will injure the 
cause more than if it never had been men- 
tioned. 



10. VISION 



Is a modern term, to signify a figurative way 
of speaking, in which the present tense is put 
for the pasty in order to bring the thing de- 
scribed immediately before the me?ital view 
of the reader or hearer. Cicero, in his fourth 
oration against Catiline, uses this figure thus, 
* I seem to behold this city, the light of the 
universe and the citadel of all nations, sud- 
denly involved in flames. I figure to myself 
my country in ruins, and the miserable bodies 



108 EP ANAPHORA, 

of slaughtered citizens lying in heaps without 
burial. The image of Cethegus furiously re- 
velling in your blood, is now before my eyes.' 

RULES. 

This figure should never be introduced ex- 
cept on very grand, or interesting occasions, 
and it ought to be expressed with much emo- 
tion. 2. It should be introduced in a suit- 
able place, and be written or expressed 
quite free from affectation. 



11. JEPANAPHORA, 

Or repetition, is a figure which gracefully 
and emphatically repeats either the same 
words, or the same sense in different words. 

The following is a good instance in prose, 
from Cicero's second oration against An- 
thony : 

<• You mourn, O Romans, that three of 
your armies have been slaughtered— they 
were slaughtered by Anthony: you lament 
the loss of your most illustrious citizens — they 



SYNCHORESIS. 109 

were torn from you by Anthony. The au- 
thority of this order is deeply wounded — it is 
wounded by Anthony. In short, all the 
calamities we have ever since beheld, (and 
what calamities have we not beheld,) if we 
reason rightly, have been owing to Anthony. 
As Helen was of Troy, so the bane, the mi- 
sery, the destruction of this state is Anthony. 5 
The following is a poetical instance : 

Thee, his lov'd wife, along the lonely shores, 
Thee, his lovM wife, his mournful song deplores ; 
Thee, when the rising morning gives the light 
Thee,when the world was overspread with night 

VIRGIL, 

Also the following : 

Happy, happy, happy pair, 

None but the brave, 

None but the brave, 
None but the brave, deserve the fair. 

DRYDEN, 



12. SYNCHORESIS, 

Or concession, is a figure by which we grant 
or yield up something, in order to gain a 



1 10 SYNCHORESIS. 

point which we could not so well secure 
without it. 

The following is a good instance in prose, 
from Ceero's oration for Flaccus. The ora- 
tor, in order to invalidate the testimony of the 
Greeks, who were witnesses against his cli- 
ent, allows them every quality but that which 
was necessary to make them credited. 

* This however, I say, concerning all the 
Greeks. I grant them learning, the know- 
ledge of many sciences ; I do not deny that 
they have wit, fine genius, and eloquence ; 
nay, if they lay claim to many other excel- 
lencies, I shall not contend their title; but 
this I must say, that nation never paid a pro- 
per regard to the religious sanctity of public 
evidence, and are strangers to the obligation, 
authority, and importance of truth.' 

CICERO. 

Nothing more confounds an adversary, 
than to grant him his whole argument, but 
at the same time, either to shew 7 that it is 
nothing to the purpose, or to offer some- 
thing else that may completely invalidate it. 



EPANORTHOSIS. 1 1 1 



13. EPANORTHOSIS, 

Or correction, is a figure by which we retract 
or recal what has been spoken, for the pur- 
pose of substituting something stronger, or 
more suitable, in its place. 

This figure is something like the paren- 
thesis. The use of it lies in the unexpected 
interruption it gives to the current of our 
discourse, by turning the stream as it were 
back upon itself, and then returning it upon 
the audience with redoubled force. 

Most commonly it occurs about the mid- 
dle of a subject or an oration, but sometimes 
at the end, as in the following example : 

* Octavius Caesar, though but a youth, was 
inspired with an incredible courage at the 
very time when the fury of Anthony was at 
its height. When we neither solicited nor 
imagined it, because it seemed utterly im- 
practicable. This Caesar raised a most pow- 
erful army of invincible veterans, for which 
service he threw away his estate ; but / have 
used an improper word ; he did not throw it 



112 PARALEPSIS. 

away, he bestowed it for the salvation of the 
commonwealth.' cicero. 



14. PARALEPSIS, 

Or omission, is a figure by which the orator- 
pretends to conceal or pass by what he really 
means to declare for or against a person. 

Thus Cicero, in his defence of Sextius, in- 
troduces his character in the following man- 
ner, with a design to recommend him to the 
favour of the judges. 

' 1 might say many things of his liberality, 
kindness to his domestics; his command in 
the army, and moderation during his office in 
the province, but the honour of the state pre- 
sents itself to my view, and calling me to it, 
advises me to omit these smaller matters.' 

CICERO. 

The following is an example of this figure 
being used against Rullus, who had proposed 
a law to sell the public lands. 

' I do not complain of the diminution 
of our revenue, owing to ' the conduct of 
Rullus, I omit the woeful effects of this 



ANACOENOSIS. 1 1 3 

loss and damage, I will not enlarge on 
the sad consequence of such a law being 
established, such as that in such a case 
we could not preserve the estates of the pub- 
lic, the fund of our provinces, or the granary 
of our wants ; I pass over all these things, 
and only speak at present of the danger of 
our peace and liberties.* cicero. 



15. ANACOENOSIS, 

Or communication, is a figure whereby we 
apply or appeal to our hearers or readers for 
their opinion upon the point in debate. 

This figure has something of the air of 
conversation, and though public discourses 
ought not to be turned into mere conversa- 
tion, yet a proper mixture of such a sort of 
freedom pleases and entertains, both on ac- 
count of its variety and its apparent co?ide- 
scension and good nature. 

The following is an example : 

• But what could you have done in such a 

case, and at such a juncture, when to have sat 

Still, or to have withdrawn, would- have been 

cowardice ? when the wickedness and fury of 



114 HYPOTYPOSIS. 

Saturninus had sent for you into the capital, 
and the consuls had called you to protect the 
safety and liberty of your country? whose 
authority, whose voice, which party would 
you have followed ? and whose orders would 
you have chosen to obey/ 

ClCEllofor RABIR1US. 

*** This figure should not be confounded 
with the erotesis or interrogation, for al* 
though it is used in the way of a question, yet 
the definition and the example prove it very 
different. 



16. HYPOTYPOSIS, 

Or lively description, is a representation of 
things in such strong and glowing colours, as 
to make them seem painted or transacted to 
the imagination of the hearer or reader. 

This may- in some respects partake of the 
nature of the prosopopeia, the hyperbole, &c. 
but it is often so very different, that it de- 
serves to be distinctly considered, though it 
is not, properly speaking, any figure. 

The distinguishing characteristic of the 
hypotoposis is, that the sound is an echo to 



HYP0TYT0S1S. 115 

the sense, and the description is strong and 
vivid. No part of composition requires 
greater taste and judgment, lest it should be 
extended too Jar. 

The following is a good example in prose. 
It contains a description of the behaviour of 
Verres to a Roman citizen, in the island of 
Sicily. 

6 The unhappy man being arrested, is 
brought before the wicked prastor. With 
eyes darting fury, and a countenance distort- 
ed with cruelty, he orders the helpless victim 
of his rage to be stripped, and rods to be 
brought, falsely accusing him of having come 
to Sicily as a spy. It was in vain that the 
unhappy man cried out, ' I am a Roman citi- 
zen; lhave served under Lucius Pretius, who 
is now at Panormus, and will attest my in- 
nocence.* The blood-thirsty praetor, deaf 
to all he could urge in his own defence, or- 
dered the infamous punishment to be inflict' 
ed. Thus, fathers, was an innocent Roman 
citizen publicly mangled with scourging, 
whilst the only words he uttered amidst his 
cruel sufferings were, * I am a Roman citi- 
zen.' With these he hoped to defend him- 



116 CLIMAX. 

Self from violence and infamy; but of so little 
service was this privilege to him, that while 
he was thus asserting his citizenship, the 
order was given for his execution ; for his 
execution upon the cross !' 

The following is one amongst the many 
poetical examples, It is a description of a 
country life : 

Here easy quiet, a secure retreat, 
-A harmless life that knows not how to cheat, 
With homebred plenty the rich owner bless, 
.And rural pleasure crowns his happiness; 
Unvex'd with quarrels, undisturb'd with noise, 
The country king his peaceful realm enjoys: 
Cool grots and living lakes, the flow'ry pride 
Of meads and streams that thro' the valleys glide, 
And shady groves that easy sleep invite, 
And after toilsome days, a sweet repose at night. 

DRYDEN'S VIRGIL. 



17. A CLIMAX, 

Or gradation^ is a figurative way of speaking, 
whereby we gradually rise from one circum- 
stance to another, till our ideas are raised to 
a very high degree. The literal meaning of 



CLIMAX, 117 

the word climax is a ladder,, and it is such 
a kind of figure as consists in the ideas or 
arguments rising in the most easy manner, 
step by step, till they have attained the high- 
est degree intended ; as thus in scripture, 
' Whether Paul, or Apollo s, or Cephas, all 
are yours, and ye are Chrisfs, and Christ 
is God's-? and thus by a celebrated writer; 
' The boy despises the infant, the man the 
boy, the philosopher both, and the christian 
all.' The anti-climax is when the ideas or 
arguments gradually sink, and become more 
weak ; as, k Queen Semiramis was the founder 
of Babylon, a conqueror of the East, and an 
excellent housewife ; or thus poetically ridi- 
culed : 

Not only London echoes with thy fame, 
But also Islington has heard the same. 

RULES. 

1 . The degrees of the climax should gradu- 
ally rise, and the last be very striking. 2. 
As this figure supposes study, it should only 
be admitted into regular subjects, or syste- 
matical essays, &c. 



1 18 CONTRASTED FIGURATIVE 



CONTRASTED FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS* 

Improper. Proper. 
Rules tend to lead a Rules tend to lead a 
genius from unnatural genius from unnatural 
deviations, into a pro- deviations, into a pro- 
per channel. blair. per path. 



Good hopes may be Good hopes may be 

entertained of those entertained of those 

whose minds have this whose minds have this 

liberal turn, many vir- liberal disposition, it 

tues may be engrafted may produce many vir- 

upon it. el air. tues. 



Lord Shaftesbury is Lord Shaftesbury is 

ever in buskins, and he ever in buskins, he is 

is full of circumlocutions too fond of circumlocu- 

and artificial elegance. tions and artificial ele- 

blair, gance. 



EXPRESSIONS. 119 

Improper. Proper. 

Similes in prose should Similes in prose should 

be used in moderation, be used in modera- 

or they will become dis- tion, or they will con«* 

gustingly luscious. fuse and tire the imagi^ 

blair. nation. 



Comparison is a Comparisons are 

sparkling ornament, and sparkling ornaments of 

all things that sparkle style, that dazzle if they 

dazzle if they recur too recur too often, 
often. blaiu. 



The proper orna- The proper orna- 
ments of style are mentsof style are in the 
wrought into the sub- very nature of it, and 
stance of it, and they flow they flow in the same 
in the same stream with stream with the current 
the current of thought. of thought. 



20 CONTRASTED FIGURATIVE 

Improper. 



The plainness of his 
manner gives his wit 
a singular edge, there is 
no froth nor affectation 
in it, it flows without 
any studied preparation. 

BLAIR. 



Proper. 
The plainness of his 
manner sets off his wit 
to the best advantage, 
there is nothing trifling 
or affected in it, nor does 
it seem to be the effect 
of study, i 



We may observe We may observe how 

how the following meta- the following metaphor 

phor is spun out. is too far extended. 

BLAIR- 



From the influx of so The English language 
many streams, from the being formed from so 
junction of so many dis- many different Ian- 
similar parts, the En- guages, it naturally fol- 
glish language must be lows, that from the junc- 
irregular. blair. tion of so many dissimi- 

lar parts it must be ir- 
regular. 



EXPRESSIONS. 121 

Improper. Proper. 

Eloquence is a field There is much room 

where there is much to improve in English 

honour yet to be reaped, eloquence, and it may 

It is an instrument wfrieh he used for many im- 

may be employed for portant purposes, 
important purposes. 

BLAIH. 



By the pleasures- of 
imagination, I mean ei- 
ther such as arise from 
visible objects, or when 
ive call up their ideas 
into our minds by paint- - 
ings, statues, &c. 

ADDISON. 



By the pleasures of 
imagination, I mean ei- 
ther such as arise from 
visible objects, or those 
which we present to our 
minds when we reflect 
on paintings, statues, &c. 



There is not a single There is not a single 

view of human nature view of human nature 

which is not sufficient to which is not sufficient 

extinguish the seeds of to expose pride, 
pride. addison. 



122 CONTRASTED 

Improper. 
Women were formed 
to temper mankind, not 
to set an edge upon their 
minds, and blow up in 
them those passions, 
which are apt to rise of 
their own accord. 

ADDISON. 



FIGURATIVE 

Proper. 

Women were formed 
to temper mankind, and 
not to inflame their 
minds with those evil 
passions, which are too 
apt to rise of their own 
accord. 



They cherish and cul- They very much cul- 
tivate that humanity tivate that humanity 
which is the ornament which is the ornament 
of our nature. of our nature. 

ADDISON. 



I prefer a noble sen- I prefer a noble sen- 
timent in homely Ian- timent in homely lan- 
guage, before a vulgar guage, before a vulgar 
one bloion up with all one in the best style, 
the sound and energy of 
expression. 

ADDISON. 



EXPRESSIONS. 123 

Improper. Proper. 

The bill at length The bill, after some 

floated through both debates, went through 

houses on the tide of a both houses by a great 

great majority, and majority, after which it 

passed safe into the port received the -royal as- 

of royal approbation. sent. 

SMOLLET. 



He endeavours to He endeavours to 
shelter himself under the conceal himself under 
mask of dissimulation. the mask of dissimula- 
tion. 



Hope, as the balm of Hope, as the cheering 
fe, darts a ray of light star of life, darts a ray 
thickest of light through the 



U 

through the 
gloom. 



thickest gloom. 



The man who has no The man who has no 

rule over his own spirit, rule over his own spirit, 

possesses no antidote a- has no defence against 

gainst poison of any dangers of any sort, but 

sort, but lies open to lies open to any invasion 

every gale of distress. of distress. 

G 2 



12* CONTRASTED FIGURATIVE 

Improper. Proper. 

No human happiness No human happiness 
is so serene as not to is so pure as not to con- 
contain an alloy. tain an alloy. 



I intend to make use I intend to make use 

of these words in the of these words in the 

thread of my specula- course of my speculation, 
tion. 



The wheels of the The wheels of the 

spiritual engine have spiritual engine have 

exerted themselves with circulated with perpe- 

perpetual motion. tual motion. 



It is like erecting a It is like erecting a 

fortress, into which in fortress, into which in 

the day of sorrow he the day of distress he 

may retreat with satis- may retreat with safety. 
faction. 



The current of our 
ideas has been moving. 



The current of our 
ideas has been flowing. 



EXPRESSIONS. 125 
Improper. Proper. 
It is pleasant to com- It is pleasant to mor- 
mand our passions, for tify our evil desires, for 
this is empire; it is plea- this is victory; it is plea- 
sant to mortify our evil sant to command our 
desires, for this is vie passions, for this is em- 



tory 



pire. 



Since the time that Since the time that 

reason began to bud and reason began to exert 

put forth her shoots, her power, thought has 

thought has been active, been active. 



126 EXAMPLES OF GOOD COMPOSITION, 



CHAP. r. 



EXAMPLES OF GOOD COMPOSITION. 

The best modern English writers in prose, 
are Addison, Arbuthnot, Blair, Goldsmith, 
Johnson, Karnes, Melmoth, Middleton, Pope, 
Reid, Robertson, Dr. Smith, Stewart, and 
Swift. Most of these excel in different kinds 
of style, which are adapted to various sub- 
jects. 

Authors on prosaic composition, have ge- 
nerally enumerated many kinds of good 
stvle, and given various names to them, but 
perhaps only two are particularly worthy of 
imitation, viz. 1. The manly or vigorous 
style used by Robertson, Steward, and John- 
son, which 1 shall contrast with the feeble. 
2. The clear or graceful, chiefly used by 
. Addison, which shall be contrasted with the 
obscure or inelegant style. 



STYLE. 



127 



1. CONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 



The feeble. 
When a book came 
into the hands of Magli- 
abechi, he would look 
the title page all over, 
then dip here and there 
in the preface and dedi- 
cation, if there were any, 
and then cast his eyes on 
each of the divisions or 
chapters, and then he 
w r ould be able for ever 
to know what that had 
contained. It was af- 
ter he had taken this 
way of foreshortening 
his reading, (if I may be 
allowed so odd an ex- 
pression, and I think J 
rather may), because he 
conceived the matter 
almost as completely in 
this short way, as if he 



The manly. 

Wherever they march- 
ed, their road was 
marked with blood. 
They respected no age, 
or sex, or rank. What 
escaped the fury of the 
first attack, perished in 
those which followed. 
The most fertile and po- 
pulous provinces were 
converted into deserts, 
in which were scattered 
the ruins of cities, that 
afforded shelter to the 
miserable inhabitants 
whom shame had pre- 
served, or the sword of 
the enemy tired with 
destroying had spared. 
The conquerors who 
first settled in the coun- 
tries they had wasted. 



128 



STYLE. 



The feeble. 

had read it at full length, 
that a priest who had 
composed a panegyric 
on one of his favourite 
saints, brought it to 
Magliabechi as a pre- 
sent. He had read it 
over the way above- 
mentioned, only the ti- 
tle page and the heads 
of the chapters, and then 
thanked him very kind- 
ly for his excellent trea- 
tise. SPENCE. 



The manly, 
were expelled or exter- 
minated by new Inva- 
ders, still more fierce 
and rapacious. This 
brought new calamities 
upon mankind, which 
did not cease until the 
north, by pouring forth 
successive swarms, were 
drained of people, and 
could no longer furnish 
instruments of destruc- 
tion. ROBERTSON, 



The obscure. 
Now if the fabric or 
temper of the mind ap- 
peared to us such as it 
really is; if we saw it 
impossible to remove 
hence any good or or- 
derly affection, or to in- 
troduce any ill or disor- 



The graceful. 
Man considered in 
himself, is a very help- 
less and miserable being. 
He is subject every mo- 
ment to the greatest ca- 
lamities and misfortunes. 
He may become unhap- 
py by numberless e&- 



THE GRACEFUL STYLE. 



129 



The obscure, 
derly one, without draw- 
ing on in some degree 
that dissolute state, 
which at its height is 
confessed to be so mi- 
serable; it would then 
undoubtedly be confes- 
sed, that since no ill, 
inunoral, or unjust ac- 
tion can be committed 
without either a new in- 
road and breach on the 



The graceful. 
sualties which he could 
not foresee, nor have 
prevented had he fore- 
seen them. 

It is our comfort while 
we are obnoxious to so 
many calamities, that 
we are under the care 
of one who directs con- 
tingencies, and has in 
his hands the manage- 
ment of every thing that 



temper and passions, or is capable of annoying 

a further advancing of or offending us, who 

that execution already knows the assistance 

done; whoever did ill, we stand in need of, 

or acted in prejudice of and is always ready to 

his integrity, would of bestow it on those who 

necessity act with ask it of him. 
greater cruelty towards The natural homage 



himself, than he who 
scrupled not to swallow 
what was poisonous, or 
who with his own hands 
should voluntarily man- 



which such a creature 
bears to so infinitely wise 
and good a being, is a 
firm reliance on him for 
the blessings and con- 



G 3 



130 A CONCISE STYLE. 

The obscure. The graceful. 

gle o?" wound his out- veniences of life, and an 

ward form or constitu- habitual trust in him for 

tion. Shaftesbury. deliverance out of all 

such dangers and diffi* 

culties as may befal us. 

ADDISON. 



2. UNCONTRASTED EXAMPLES. 

Besides the two foregoing particular kinds 
of good style, there are also two general ways 
of writing or speaking, viz. the concise and 
the diffuse. Each of these is good in differ- 
ent respects, and the reader is to consider to 
which he is naturally inclined to give the 
preference, or how far he can adopt both on 
suitable subjects. The concise has usually 
short sentences, comprehends much in few 
words, and is necessary for all subjects that 
require much precision. The diffuse has ge- 
nerally longer sentences than the concise, it 
places the ideas in various views, and is 



A CONCISE STYLE. 131 

adapted to subjects that require much illus- 
tration. A quotation shall be given to ex- 
emplify each of these two, and also exam- 
ples of other sorts of style, and this chapter 
will conclude with various specimens of good 
compositions. 

1. Examples of a good Concise Style, 

A man while awake is conscious of a con- 
tinued train of perceptions and ideas passing 
in his mind. It requires no activity on his 
part to carry on the train, nor can he at will 
add to the train any idea that has no connec- 
tion with it. At the same time we learn 
from daily experience, .that the train cf our 
thoughts is not regulated by chance, and if it 
depends not upon will nor upon chance, by 
what law is it governed ? The question is 
important, and I promise beforehand, that it 
will be found of great importance in the fine 
arts. 

It appears from the relations by which 
things are linked together to have a great in- 
fluence in directing the train of thought. 



132 A CONCISE STYLE. 

Taking a view of external objects, we see that 
their inherent properties are not more re- 
markable than their various relations which 
connect them together-: one thing perceived 
to be a cause is connected with its several 
effects: some things are connected by conti- 
guity in time, others by contiguity in space ; 
and some are connected by resemblance, 
some by contrast, some go before, some fol- 
low; not a single thing appears solitary and 
altogether devoid of connection ; the only 
difference is, that some are ultimately con- 
nected, some more slightly, some near, some 
at a distance. 

Experience will satisfy us of what reason 
makes probable, that the train of our thoughts 
is in a great measure regulated by the fore- 
going connections: an external object is no 
sooner presented to us in idea, than it sug- 
gests to the mind other objects with which it 
is connected, and in this manner is a train of 
thoughts composed. Such is the law of suc- 
cession: whether an original law, or whether 
directed by latent principle is doubtful, and 
probably will for ever remain so. This law 



A DIFFUSE STYLE. 133 

however is not inviolable, it sometimes hap- 
pens, that an idea arises in the mind without 
that connection, as for example after a pro- 
found sleep. LORD KAMES. 

2. Examples of a good Diffuse Style. 

I can easily admire poetry, and yet without 
adoring it : I can allow it to arise from the 
greatest excellency of natural temper, or the 
greatest degree of native genius, without ex- 
ceeding the reach of what. is human, or giv- 
ing it any approaches of divinity, which is, I 
doubt, debased or dishonoured by ascribing 
to it any thing that is in the compass of our 
action, or even comprehension, unless it be 
raised by an immediate influence from itself. 
I cannot allow poetry to be more divine in 
its effects than in its causes, nor any opera- 
tions produced by it to be more than purely 
natural, or to deserve any other sort of won- 
der than those of music or of natural magic, 
however any of them have appeared to 
minds little versed in tbe speculations of na~ 



134 A DIFFUSE STYLE. 

ture, of occult qualities, and the force of num- 
bers or of sounds. Whoever talks of draw- 
ing down the moon from heaven by force of 
verses or of charms, either believes not him- 
self, or too easily believes what others tell 
him, or perhaps follows an opinion begun by 
the practice of some poet, upon the facility 
of some people, who knowing the time when 
an eclipse would happen, told them he would 
by his charms call down the moon at such 
an hour, and was by them thought to have 
performed it. 

When I read that charming description in 
Virgil's eighth eclogue of all sorts of charms 
and fascinations, by verses, by images, by 
numbers, by fire and by herbs, employed 
upon occasion of a violent passion from a 
jealous or disappointed love, I have recourse 
to the strong impressions of fables and of 
poetry, to the easy mistakes of popular opi- 
nions, to the force of imagination, to the se- 
cret virtues of several herbs, and to the 
powers of sounds ; and I am sorry the natu- 
ral history or account of fascination has not 



A DIFFUSE STYLE. % 135 

employed the pen of some person of such 
excellent wit, deep thought and learning, as 
Casaubon, who" wrote that curious and useful 
treatise of enthusiasm, and by it discovered 
the hidden or mistaken sources of that delu- 
sion so frequent in all regions and religions of 
the world, and which had so fatally spread 
over the country in the age in which that 
treatise was published. It is much to be la- 
mented, that he lived not to complete that 
work in the second part he promised, or that 
his friends neglected the publishing it, if it 
were left in papers, though loose and unfi- 
nished. I think a clear account of enthusi- 
asm and fascination from their natural causes, 
would very much deserve approbation from 
mankind in general, as well as from the com- 
monwealth of learning, and it might perhaps 
prevent many public disorders, and save the 
Jives of so many innocent deluded or delud- 
ing persons, who suffer so frequently upon 
account of witches and vizards. I have seen 
many miserable examples of this kind in my 
youth at home, and though the humour or 



1 36 A PLAIN STYLE. 

fashion be a good deal worn out of the world, 
within thirty or forty years past, yet it still 
remains in several remote parts of Germany, 
Sweden, and some other countries. 

SIR W. TEMPLE. 

3. Specimen of a good Plain Style. 

I suppose it will be granted, that hardly 
one in an hundred among our people of qua- 
lity or gentry, appear to act by any principle 
of religion. That great numbers of them do 
entirely discard it, and are ready to own 
their disbelief of all revelation. Nor is the 
case much better among the vulgar, especi- 
ally in large towns, where the profaneness 
and ignorance of handicrafts, small traders, 
and servants, are to a degree very great. It is 
observed abroad, that no race of mortals has 
so little sense of religion as English soldiers, 
and the same at least may "be affirmed of the 
fleet. The consequences of all which, upon 
the actions of men, are equally manifest. 
Immoral men do not go about as in former 



A NEAT STYLE. 13-7 

times to hide or pailiate their vices, but ex- 
pose them freely to view, like any other com- 
mon occurrence of life; and although all 
regard for reputation be not quite laid aside 
in the other seXj yet it is at a very low ebb. 

SW3£FT. 

4. A neat Style, 

We sympathize even with the dead, and 
overlooking that awful futurity that awaits 
them, we are chiefly affected by those cir- 
cumstances which strike our senses. It is 
miserable we think for them to be deprived 
of the light of the sun, to be shut out from 
life and conversation, to be laid in the cold 
grave a prey to corruption and reptiles, and 
in a little time- to be obliterated from the 
affections, and almost from the memory of 
their dearest friends and relations. Surely 
we imagine we can never feel too much for 
those who have suffered so dreadful a cala- 
mity. That our sympathy can afford them 
no consolation, seems to be an addition to 



138 A GOOD FLORID STYLE. 

their calamity, and to think that the regret 
and love of their friends can yield them no 
comfort, serves only to exasperate our sense 
of their misery. The happiness of the dead 
most assuredly is affected by none of these 
circumstances, nor is it the thought of these 
things which can disturb the profound secu- 
rity of their repose. It is from this very illu- 
sion of the imagination that the foresight of 
our own dissolution is so terrible to us, and 
that the idea of those circumstances which 
undoubtedly can give us no pain when we 
are dead, makes us miserable while we are 
alive. dr. smith. 

5. A good Florid Style. 

There is a kind of voice which speaks 
through the universe. The language of na- 
ture is that of delight, and even the parts in- 
capable of admitting this delight have yet the 
means of imparting it. 

The structure of the heavens manifest 
such design and wisdom, that some of the 



A GOOD FLORID STYLE. 159 

ancient philosophers supposed that man was 
born only to view and admire them. The 
beauty displayed in this earth, equals the 
grandeur conspicuous in the heavens. There 
is no region in which the volume of instruc- 
tion is not unfolded. In every climate is 
found proper food for the support of the in- 
habitants, and proper medicines for the re- 
moval of their diseases. And should every 
age even change its food and its diseases, 
there would still be found in the world sup- 
plies sufficient for the inhabitants — so beau* 
tiful and provident is nature 1 The distribu- 
tion of oceans, seas and rivers ; the variety 
of fields, meadows, and groves ; the luxuriance 
of fruits, herbs, and flowers; the return of the 
four seasons, not only regular in their ap- 
proaches, but bringing with them presents to 
make their return desirable ; the pleasing vi- 
cissitudes of day and night, all have a voice, 
which by telling man he is constantly receiv- 
ing favours, reminds him that he should be 
ready to bestow them. dyer. 



140 A LACONIC STYLE. 

6. A JLaconic Style. 

The women in' their turn learned to be 
more vain, gay, and alluring. They grew 
studious to please and to conquer. They 
lost some of the intrepidity and fierceness 
which before were characteristic of them. 
Their education was to be an object of great- 
er attention and care. A finer sense of beau- 
ty was to arise. They were to exert a fancy 
in dress and ornament. A greater play was 
to be given to sentiment and anticipation. 
Greater reserve was to accompany the com- 
merce of the sexes. Modesty was to take 
the alarm sooner. Gallantry, in all its fashi- 
ons and all its charms, was to unfold itself. 

STEWART. 

Man he surveyed with the most accurate 
observation. His understanding acute and 
vigorous, was well fitted for diving into the 
human mind. His humour lively and versa- 
tile, could paint justly and agreeably what he 
saw. He possessed a rapid and clear concep- 
tion with an animated and graceful style. 

ANDERSON, 



GOOD EPISTOLARY STYLES. 1 U 



7. Good Epistolary Styles, 



Pythagoras to King Hiero. 

I am happy at present in a life of safety 
and retirement; a life entirely different from 
yours. Sicillian luxury can never add to the 
felicity of a man whose sole enjoyment is in 
moderation and tranquillity. Wherever Py- 
thagoras goes he will find every thing he 
stands in need of. Attendance on the great 
is a heavy task, to which those who are not 
used to servitude can never submit. Health 
is not to be preserved by intemperance, but 
by that abstinence which leads men to the 
practice of virtue. All pleasures weaken and 
impair the mind, and especially those in 
which you so frequently indulge yourself. 
Whilst you live thus, do not invite Pythago- 
ras ; but remember, that physicians are most 
careful to avoid those distempers which af- 
fect their patients. 



14-2 GOOD EPISTOLARY STYLES, 

Cicero to Tiro, 

I did not imagine that I should have been 
so little able to support your absence* but in- 
deed it is more than I can well bear. Be 
well assured that there is nothing that I more 
ardently desire than to have you with me, 
provided I may enjoy that pleasure without 
prejudice to yourself; but if your continuing 
longer at Pratrae should be thought necessary, 
I prefer your health to all other considera- 
tions. If you should embark immediately, 
you may overtake me at Leucus, but if you 
defer your voyage till your recovery be better 
confirmed, let me entreat you to be very care- 
ful in choosing a safe ship, and do not sail at 
an improper season, nor without a convoy. 
I particularly charge you also my dear Tiro, 
by all the regard you bear me, not to suffer 
the arrival of Mario, or any thing that I have 
said in this letter, in the least to influence 
your resolution. It is true, I am extremely 
desirous of your company, and of enjoying it 
as early as possible: but the same affection 
which causes me to be anxious to see you 



GOOD EPISTOLARY STYLES. ] 43 

soon, makes me wish to see you well. Let 
your health therefore be your principal care; 
assuring yourself that among all the number- 
less good offices I have received at your 
hands, I shall esteem that by far the most 
acceptable. cicero. 



Mr. Tope to the Earl of Oxford. 
MY LORD, 

Your lordship may be surprised at the li- 
berty I take of writing to you, though you 
will allow me always to remember, that you 
once permitted me that honour in conjunc- 
tion with some others who better deserved 
it. I hope you will not wonder I am still 
desirous to have you think me your grateful 
and faithful servant, but I own I have an am- 
bition yet farther to have others think me so, 
which is the occasion I give your lordship the 
trouble of this. Poor Parnell, before he died, 
left me the charge of publishing these few 
remains of his. I have a strong desire to 
make them, their author, and publisher, more 



144 GOOD EPISTOLARY STYLES. 

considerable, by addressing and dedicating 
them all to you. There is a pleasure in 
bearing testimony to truth, and a vanity per- 
haps, which at least is as excusable as any 
vanity can be. I beg you, my Lord, to allow 
me to gratify it in prefixing this paper of 
honest verses to the book. I send the book 
itself, which I dare say you will receive more 
satisfaction in perusing, than you can from 
any thing written upon the subject of your- 
self. Therefore I am much in doubt whe- 
ther you will care for such an addition. All 
I shall say for it is, that it is the only dedi- 
cation I ever wrote, and shall be the only 
one, whether you accept of it or not ; for I 
will not bow the knee to a less man than lord 
Oxford, and I expect to see no greater in my 
time. I am, my Lord, 

Yours, &c. 

ALEX. POPE. 

Lady M. W. Montagu to Mr. Pope. 

I have this minute received a letter of 
yours, sent me from Paris. I believe- and 



GOOD EPISTOLARY STYLES. 145 

hope that I shall very soon see both you and 
Mr. Congreve, but as I am here at an inn, 
where we stay to regulate our baggage in our 
march to London, I shall employ some of 
my leisure time in answering that part of 
yours, that seems to require an answer. 

I must applaud your good nature, in sup- 
posing that your pastoral lovers, vulgarly cal- 
led hay-makers, would have lived in conti- 
nual joy and harmony, if the lightning had 
not interrupted their scheme of happiness, 
I see no reason to imagine, that John Hughes 
and Sarah Drew, were either wiser, or more 
virtuous than their neighbours ; neither am 
I of opinion, that their sudden death was a 
reward of their virtue. You know that the 
Jews were reproved for thinking a village 
destroyed by fire, more wicked than those 
which had escaped the thunder. Time and 
chance happen to all. Since you desire me 
to- try my skill in an epitaph, I think the fol- 
lowing more just, though not so poetical as 
yours : 



H 



146 EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 

Here lies John Hughes and Sarah Drew, . 
Perhaps you'll say, what's that to you ; 
Believe me, friend, much may be said 
On that poor couple that are dead : 
On Sunday next they should have married, 
But see how oddly things are carried : 
On Thursday last it rain'd and lightened, 
These tender lovers sadly frighten'd, 
Shelter'd beneath the cocking hay, 
In hopes to pass the time away; 
But the bold thunder found them out, 
Commission'd for that end, no doubt, 
And seizing on their trembling breath, 
Consign'd them to the shades of death. 
Who knows if 'twas not kindly done, 
For had they seen the next year's sun, 
A beaten wife and cuckold swain 
Had jointly curs'd the marriage chain. 

8. EXAMPLES OF GOOD PROSAIC 
COMPOSITION. 

Defence of Mila» 

My Lords, 
Let fear, if you Have any, be laid aside, and 
act with spirit, for if ever you had it in your 



EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE, 14*7 

power to judge of the honest and the brave ; 
if ever the liberty of worthy citizens was in 
your hands ; if ever men, selected from the 
most illustrious of our orders had an oppor- 
tunity to render effectual by their decision 
those favourable intimations which they had 
before given by looks and words; in you at 
this instant all these powers are vested, that 
you may pronounce whether we who have 
been devoted to your authority should lan- 
guish under oppression, or after long perse- 
cution by the most abandoned citizens, at 
last be relieved by your integrity, virtue and 
wisdom. cicero. 

In praise of Pompey. 

Where is the man that possesses greater 
abilities in war than Pompey ? One who has 
fought more pitched battles than others have 
maintained personal disputes, carried on 
more wars than others have acquired know- 
ledge of by reading, reduced more provinces 
than others have aspired to even in thought ; 
whose youth was trained to the profession of 
H 2 



US EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 

arms, not by precepts derived from others, 
but by the highest offices of command ; not 
by personal mistakes in war, but by a train 
of important victories ; not by a series of cam- 
paigns, but by a succession of triumphs. 

CICERO. 

Incitement to Action. 

When will you, my countrymen, when will 
you rouse from your indolence, and consider 
what is to be done ? when you are forced to 
it by some fatal disaster? when irresistible 
necessity drives you ? What think you of the 
disgraces that are already come upon you ? 
Is not the past sufficient to stimulate your 
activity ? How long will you amuse yourselves 
with enquiring of one another what news, 
as you ramble about the streets ? W'hat news 
so strange ever came to Athens, as that Philip 
the Macedonian should subdue, this state, 
and lord it over Greece ? In the name of all 
that is sacred, and all that is dear to us, let 
us make an attempt with what forces we can 
raise, and do what we can to curb this tyrant ! 

DEMOSTHENES. 



EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 149 

Against the Romans. 
But after all, who are these mighty Ro- 
mans ? does not peace effeminate them ? 
does not abundance debauch them ? and car 
you imagine that they who are so remarkable 
for their vices, are remarkable for their valour ? 
What then do ye dread ? what is this formid-. 
able Roman army? Is it not composed of a 
mixture of people from different countries ? 
They keep togetherwhile they are successful. 
Attack them with vigour, and distress them j 
you will then see them more disunited among 
themselves than we are now. The Romans 
have no parents, as we have, to reproach 
them; they have no country here to fight 
for; let us therefore boldly attack this dis- 
united rabble. I conclude, my countrymen, 
with putting you in mind, that on your be- 
haviour this day depends your future enjoy- 
ment of peace and liberty, or your subjection 
to a tyrannical enemy with the grievous con- 
sequences. When, therefore, you come to 
engage, think of your ancestors, and think of 
your posterity,, galgacus. 



150 EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 

Against the American War. 

The war against America is against your 
own countrymen, every blow therefore that 
you strike in America is against yourselves. 
The war of the Americans is of such a na- 
ture as to be supported by the most powerful 
virtues, the love of liberty and of their coun- 
try, and at the same time by those passions 
in the human heart which give courage, 
strength, and perseverance to man. Every 
thing combines to animate them, in order to 
undergo difficulties and dangers, and as long 
as there is a man in North America, you will 
have him present himself against you in the 
field. What is become of the ancient spirit 
of the nation ? Have the present ministry 
spent that too with almost all your money? 
While you keep the ministers you have now, 
no power in Europe will join you ; there is 
none blind enough to be allied with weakness 
and become partner in bankruptcy ; there is 
no one blind enough to ally itself to obsti- 
nacy, absurdity, and imbecility. fox. 



EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 151 



True Generosity. 

True generosity is a vigorous principle of 
the soul, which opens and expands all her 
virtues far beyond those which are only the 
forced productions of a timid obedience. 
Religion without this principle of generosity 
degenerates into a slavish fear, wisdom into 
a specious cunning, and learning is but the 
avarice of the mind. In a word, generosity 
adds grace to every acquisition of the soul, 
and if it does not necessarily include, at least it 
reflects lustre upon the whole circle of moral 
and intellectual qualities. 
melmoth's letters of fiTzosborne. 



Language, 

Language is the dress of thought. As the 
noblest mien or most graceful action would 
be degraded by a garb appropriated to rustics 
or mechanics, so the best sentiments will lose 
their efficacy, if conveyed by words used 



152 EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE, 
upon low or trivial occasions, debased by 
vulgar mouths, or improperly applied. 

DR. JOHNSON. 

Familiar Intercourse. 

A wise and good man is never so amiable 
as in his unbended and familiar intervals. 
Heroic generosity or philosophical discove- 
ries may compel veneration j but love always 
implies some kind of natural or voluntary 
equality, and is only to be excited by that 
cheerfulness which disencumbers all minds 
from awe and solicitude, invites the modest 
to freedom, and the timorous to confidence. 

DR. JOHNSON. 

Redeeming Time. 

Redeem your time from dangerous waste, 
and seek to fill it with such employments 
which you may review with satisfaction. 
The acquisition of knowledge is one of the 
most honourable occupations of youth. The 
desire of it discovers a liberal mind, and is 



connected with many virtues and many ac- 
complishments. Whatever you pursue be 
emulous to excel. Think not that any afflu- 
ence of fortune* or any elevation of mind, 
exempts you from the duties of application. 
Industry is the law of our being, it is the de- 
mand of nature, of reason, and of God. 

DR. BLAIR. 

Advantages of Gentleness. 

To the man of gentleness, the world is 
generally disposed to ascribe every other 
good quality. The higher endowments of 
the mind we admire at a distance ; but this 
much nearer, for since all in some degree 
partake- of the effects of gentleness, therefore 
all love it, The man of this character often 
rises in the world without struggle, and flou- 
rishes without envy. His misfortunes are 
universally lamented, and his failings are ea- 
sily forgiven. DR. BLAIR. 

Lessons of Mortality. 
When I look upon the tombs of the 
great, every emotion of envy dies in me; 
H 3 ; 



154. EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 

when I read the epitaphs of the beautiful, 
every inordinate desire goes out; when I 
meet with the grief of parents upon tomb- 
stones, my heart melts with compassion; 
when I see the tombs of the parents them- 
selves, 1 consider the vanity of grieving for 
those whom we must quickly follow ; when 
I see kings lying by those who deposed them, 
and rivals placed side by side, or the men that 
divided the world with their contests and dis- 
putes, I reflect with astonishment on the 
little competitions, factions, and debates of 
mankind ; when I read the several dates of 
the tombs, of some that died yesterday and 
some many hundred years ago, I consider 
that great day when we shall all of us be 
contemporaries, and make our appearance 
together. addison. 

Blessings of Nature. 

Nature seems to have taken a particular 
care so to disseminate her blessings that the 
inhabitants of different parts of the globe 
might have a kind of dependence upon one 
another, and be united by their common in^ 



EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 155 

terests. Almost every nation produces some- 
thing peculiar to it. The food often grows 
in one country, and the sauce, in another. 
The fruits of Portugal are corrected by the 
products of Barbadoes; the infusion of a 
China plant sweetened with the pith of an 
Indian cane. The Phiilippine islands give a 
flavour to our European bowls. The single 
dress of a woman of quality is often the pro- 
duct of many climates; The muff and the 
fan come together from different ends of the 
earth. The scarf is sent from the torrid 
zone, and the tippet from beneath the pole. 
The brocade petticoat rises out of the mines 
of Peru, and the diamond necklace out of the. 
bowels of Indostan. addison. 



Character of Mary Queen of Scots, 

To all the charms of beauty, and the ut- 
most elegance of external form, Mary ad- 
ded those accomplishments which make their 
impression irresistible. Polite, affable, in- 
sinuating, sprightly and capable of speaking 
and writing with equal ease and dignity, 



156 EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 

Sudden however, and violent in all her at- 
tachments, because her heart was warm and 
unsuspicious. Impatient of contradiction, 
because she had been accustomed from her 
infancy to be treated as a queen. No 
stranger to dissimulation, which, in that per- 
fidious court where she received her educa- 
tion was reckoned among the necessary arts 
of government. Not insensible to flattery, 
or unconscious of that pleasure with which 
almost every woman beholds the influence 
of her own beauty. To say that she was al- 
ways unfortunate, will not account for that 
long succession of misfortunes that befel her, 
we must likewise add, that she was often im- 
prudent. Her passion for Darniey was rash 
and excessive, and the manners of the age, 
licentious as they were, are no apology for 
her attachment to that nobleman. Huma- 
nity will draw a veil over this part of her 
character, which it cannot approve, and it 
may perhaps prompt some to impute her im- 
prudent actions more to her situation than to 
her disposition. Mary's sufferings exceed, 
both in degree and in duration, those tragical 



EXAMPLES OF GOOD LANGUAGE. 157 

distresses which fancy has feigned to excite 
sorrow and commiseration, and while we 
survey them we are apt to forget her frailties. 
Besides the beauty of her person, she danced, 
she walked, and rode with equal grace. Her 
taste for music was just, and she both sung 
and played upon the lute with uncommon 
skill. In short, she possessed all the quali- 
ties and talents that we admire, and no per- 
son of sensibility will ever read her history 
without sorrow. Robertson, 



On Justice, 

Justice may be defined that virtue which 
impels us to give every person what is his 
due. In this extended sense of the word it 
comprehends the practice of every virtue 
which reason prescribes or society should ex- 
pect. Our duty to our Maker, to each other, 
and to ourselves, are fully answered if we give 
them what we owe them. Thus justice, pro- 
perly speaking, is very comprehensive, and 
all the other virtues have their origin from it, 
The qualities of candour, fortitude, charity. 



158 EXAMPLES OF GOOD 

and generosity, for instance, are not in their 
own nature virtues; and if ever they deserve 
the title, it is owing only to justice, which im- 
pels and directs them. Without such a mo- 
derator, candour might become indiscretion, 
fortitude obstinacy, charity imprudence, and 
generosity mistaken profusion. 

GOLD-SMJTH. 



Horner and Virgil compared. 

Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the 
better artist ; in the one we must admire the 
man, in the other the work. Homer hurries 
and transports us with a commanding impe- 
tuosity, Virgil leads us with an attractive 
majesty ; Homer scatters with a generous 
profusion, Virgil bestows with a careful mag- 
nificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out 
his riches with a boundless overflow; Virgil, 
like a river in its banks, with a gentle and 
constant stream. pope. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 159 



9. EXAMPLES OF GOOD FIGURATIVE 
LANGUAGE. 

Christ superior to Mahomet, 

Go to your natural religion-; lay before 
her Mahomet and his disciples, arrayed in ar- 
mour and in blood, riding in triumph over 
the spoils of thousands who fell byJiis victo- 
rious sword. Shew her the cities which he 
set in flames, the countries which he ravaged 
and destroyed, and the miserable distress of 
the inhabitants of the earth. When she has 
viewed him in this scene, carry her into his 
retirement, shew her the prophet's chamber, 
his concubines and his wives, and let her hear 
him ailedge revelation and a divine commis- 
sion to justify his adultery and lust. When 
she is tired with this prospect, then shew her 
the blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing 
good to all the sons of men. Let her see 
him in his most retired privacies, let her fol- 
low him to the mount, and hear his devotions 



1 50 EXAMPLES OF GOOD » 

and supplications to God. Carry her to his 
table, and . view his poor fare, and hear his 
heavenly discourse. Let her attend -him to 
the tribunal, and consider the patience with 
which he endured the scoffs and reproaches 
of his enemies. Lead her to his cross; let 
her view him in the agony of death, and 
hear his last prayer for his persecutors, * Fa- 
ther forgive them, for they know not what 
they do.' 

When natural religion has. thus viewed 
both, ask her which is the prophet of God ? 
But her answer .we have already had, when 
she saw part of this scene through the eyes 
of the centurion who attended at the cross. 
By him she spoke and said, c truly this man 
was the son of God.' bp. Sherlock, - 



Revolutions of Life. 

The world is like a vast sea, mankind like- 
a vessel sailing on its tempestuous bosom. 
Our prudence is its sails, the sciences serve 
us for oars, good or bad fortune are the fa- 
vourable or contrary winds, and judgment is 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, 161 

the rudder. In a word, obscurity and indi- 
gence are sometimes the parents of vigilance 
and ceconomy, vigilance and ceconomy of 
riches and honour, riches and honour of 
pride and luxury, pride and luxury of impurity 
and idleness, and impurity and idleness may 
again produce indigence and obscurity. Such 
are the revolutions of life. 

GOLDSMITH. 



Poverty never welcome, 

The goddess appears, for poverty ever 
comes at the call ; but alas ! he finds her by 
no means the charming figure, which books, 
and imagination had painted. As when an. 
eastern bride, whom her friends and relations 
had long described as a model of perfection, 
pays her first visit, the longing bridegroom 
lifts the veil to see a face he had never seen 
before, but instead of a countenance blazing 
with beauty like the sun, he beholds de- 
formity shooting icicles to his heart; such ap- 
pears poverty to her new entertainer. 

GOLDSMITH-. 



1 62 EXAMPLES OF GOOU 



Knowledge compared to a Hill. 

We shall conduct you to a hill-side, labo- 
rious indeed at the first ascent, but else so 
smooth, so green, so full of goodly prospects 
and melodious sounds on every side, that the 
harp of Orpheus was not more, charming. 

MILT. ON. 



The m& and the foolish. 

How different is the view of past life in 
the man who is grown old in knowledge 
from that of him who is grown old in igno- 
rance ! the latter is like the owner of a bar- 
ren country, that fills the eye with the pro- 
spect of naked hills and plains, which produce 
nothing either profitable or ornamental ; the 
former beholds a pleasant and spacious- land- 
scape, divided into delightful gardens, green 
meadows, fruitful fields ; and can scarce cast 
his eye on a single spot of his possessions, 
that is not covered with some beautiful flower 
or plant, addison. 






FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 163 



Superiority of Sense. 

A man of sense and imagination is let unto 
a great many pleasures which the vulgar are 
not capable of receiving. He can converse 
with a picture, and find an agreeable compa- 
nion in a statue. He meets with a secret re- 
freshment in a description, and often feels a 
greater satisfaction in the prospect of £elds 
and meadows, than another does in the pos- 
session. It gives him a kind of property in 
every thing he sees, and makes the most rude 
uncultivated parts of nature administer to his 
pleasures; so that he looks upon the world in 
another light, and discovers in it a multitude 
of charms that conceal themselves from the 
generality of mankind. addison. 

Seme and Imagination like Wax, 

As wax would not be adequate to the pur- 
pose of signature, if it had not the power to 
retain as well as to receive, the impression, 
the same holds of the soul with respect to 



J 64 EXAMPLES OF GOOD, &c. 

sense and imagination. Sense is its receptive 
power, imagination its retentive. Had it 
sense without imagination, it would not be as 
wax, but as water, where, though ail impres- 
sions be instantly made, yet as soon as they 
are made, they are immediately lost. 



Unseen Heights in Learning.. 

Fir'd at first sight with what the Muse imparts,, 
In fearless youth we tempt the height of arts; 
While from the bounded level of our mind, 
Short views we take, nor see the lengths behind j 
But more advanced, behold with strange surprize 
New distant scenes of endless science rise ! 
So pleas'd at first, the towering Alps we try, 
Mount o'er the vales, and seem to tread the sky ! 
Th' eternal snows appear already past, 
And the first clouds and mountains seem the last ; 
But these attained, we tremble to survey 
The growing labours of the lengthen'd way ; 
TV increasing prospect tires our wand'ring eyes* 
Hills geep o'er hills, r and Alps on Alps arise! 



HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLB. 165 



CHAP. VI. 

* H'OW TO FORM A GOO© STYLE. 



A good style cannot be better defined than 
in the following words by Dr. Armstrong, 
* If I were to reduce my own idea of the best 
Janguage to a definition, 1 should call it the 
shortest, clearest, and most easy way of ex- 
pressing our thoughts by the most harmonious 
arrangement of the best chosen words, both 
for meaning and sound. The best language 
is strong and expressive without stiffness or 
affectation, short and concise without being 
either obscure or ambiguous, and easy, flow- 
ing, and disengaged, without undetermined or 
superfluous words.' 

From the examples of style in the preced- 
ing chapter, it appears that there are various 
sorts of good style. The judicious reader 



166 HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 

should not merely consider to which he gives 
the preference, but which is most suited to 
his disposition of mind, and present attain- 
ments. Those who are classical scholars, or 
have a correct taste with a fine imagination, 
may on suitable subjects, use the graceful or 
florid style, so that they keep clear from 
bombast and affectation. Such as have not 
these accomplishments, should adopt the 
plain, the neat, or the vigorous style, with 
few or no figurative expressions. With re- 
spect to the diffuse or concise manner of 
writing, each has its peculiar advantages, and 
each becomes faulty when carried to the ex- 
treme. The extreme of diffuseness becomes 
weak, and tires the reader, and therefore 
conciseness upon the whole is preferable, yet 
it may degenerate into abruptness and ob- 
scurity. As to the laconic style, although it 
may seem pleasing, and it was much used by 
the ancients, yet being so short, it is very lia- 
ble to obscurity, and is without dignity. For 
these reasons it is but seldom used by the 
foest modern writers; however, it may be 
used on some familiar subjects, especially in 



HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYT.E. 167 

epistolary writings. Thus much being said 
on the different kinds of style, in order to as- 
sist the reader to fix on one which is suitable, 
it will also be necessary to give directions 
how to form any such style correctly. This 
will be done by pointing out, first, what 
faults must be avoided, secondly, to what we 
must particularly attend. 

1. WHAT MUST BE AVOIDED. 

1. All improper words — Any one> who 
wishes to be a correct writer, must not only 
avoid all ungrammatical and provincial ex- 
pressions, but also all improper contractions; 
as, 'tis, 'twere, &c. Besides, he must not 
use words that are obsolete, low, or inele- 
gant, such for instance as are mentioned in 
the contrasted examples, and various others 
of a similar nature. He should also avoid 
words that have a harsh sound though they 
may be proper. 

2. All redundant words — Synonymous 
words are sometimes proper, in order to avoid 
repetitions, or to give a pleasing variety, but 



163 HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 

they should be very cautiously used. Every 
sentence should either have a new idea, or 
contain a necessary illustration of the fore- 
going, and every member of a sentence should 
not have superfluous words of any kind, for 
it is an invariable rule in composition, that 
every word which adds nothing to the sense 
or beauty of the sentiment must tend to in- 
jure one or both of them. The same re- 
marks are also applicable to the repetition of 
ideas. 

3. All ambiguous expressions — Our words 
may not be improper in themselves, and no 
redundant terms maybe used, and yet some 
of the words may not convey the precise idea, 
but perhaps a very different one, which may 
cause mistakes or confusion. When words 
or terms are thus misapplied, the reader or 
hearer must either bcrnisledy or else he is not 
edified. 

4, Stiff inverted phrases — All inversions 
are not to be avoided, for sometimes they are 
necessary for the sake of variety, but in gene- 
ral the natural order of a sentence is best. 
Lord Shaftesbury's style has too many in- 



HOW TO FORxM A GOOD STYLE. 169 

verted phrases, which make it very affected, 
and Blair is rather faulty in this particular, as 
may be seen under the Misplaced Contrasted 
Examples, Chap. II. 

5. Very long sentences — It is true that 
sentences ought not to be too short, for then 
the sense may be obscured, but to be very 
long is a great impropriety. Old English 
authors generally wrote in a very diffuse 
manner, with long sentences, and some mo- 
dern French authors write in a laconic style, 
with very short sentences. Perhaps both of 
these are extremes. No invariable rule can 
be given, but we may truly say that every 
good style is generally composed of long and 
short sentences properly intermixed. In or- 
der to know how to divide long sentences, 
see Divided Contrasted Sentences, Chap. III. 
6. All servile imitations — If we can so 
imitate the style of Addison, or any other 
good writer, as to make it our own, it will be 
well. If we-injudiciGiisli/ imitate any. cele- 
brated author, we shall copy their defects as 
weli as their beauties. It is better to have a 
plain style of our own, than to affect a florid 
i 



]70 HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 

one of some great writer. This servile imi- 
tation is an attempt to shine in borrowed or- 
naments, and it will sooner or later expose us 
to contempt. 

7. Improper beginnings and conclusions — ■ 
Never begin a subject with a long sentence, 
or one that is hard to be understood. Do 
not let any sentence consist chiefly of words 
of one syllable. Never conclude a subject 
with a short sentence, nor yet with any such 
inconsiderable words as, ' by, from, with, 
upon, of, after, to, also, it,' &c. After you 
have exhibited good ideas, let there be no 

falling off towards the end. To conclude 
harmoniously, the last word or the last but 
one should be a long syllable in every sen- 
tence. Be careful not to conclude any im- 
portant part of a subject abruptly, and much 
less the last sentence in such a manner. 

8. Avoid carelessness in composition — It 
is a great mistake, to suppose that there must 
be a kind of carelessness in our language, or 
it will be stiff. We may use great judgment 
in the choice and arrangement of words, and 
yet the style may be easy and elegant. In 



HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 17 I 

first setting down to compose, perhaps it may 
be proper to take almost the first words that 
offer, but we must not neglect to review and 
correct what is written. Some authors, pre- 
suming upon the reputation they have gained, 
have afterwards lost it by carelessness. 

2. TO WHAT WE MUST PARTICULARLY 
ATTEND. 

Get a comprehensive and clear knowledge 
of the subject — If we do not understand what 
we write upon, we are not likely to explain it 
properly to others, .but when it is well under- 
stood, suitable words generally come into the 
mind. This will be the case in an especial 
manner, if, while speaking or writing on a 
subject, it animates us, or we strongly feel its 
importance. 

2. Be well acquainted with the requisites 
for composition. English composition is 
now so much refined, that those who wish to 
appear to advantage as authors, must not 
only know grammar and the elements of rhe- 
toric, but they should also understand the 



172 HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE, 
various idioms of the English language,- and 
its extent. They should likewise know the 
most approved phrases, used by the best 
writers, and the distinction between words 
accounted synonymous. Besides all this, 
they should have taste and a good ear. 

3. Often peruse the best prosaic authors — 
As examples teach better than any rules that 
can be given, therefore we must study the 
works of the most polished writers. This 
will not only furnish us with valuable ideas, 
but supply with a stock of suitable words. 
Swiff s style is pure English, but it is too fa- 
miliar and unadorned for any grand subject. 
The style of Shaftesbury is generally correct 
snd harmonious, but it is very affected and 
bombastic. Dr. Johnson's style is masculine, 
and his writings are truly valuable, but they 
are not free from pedantic expressions, and 
the language wants more simplicity. The 
style of Dr. Blair would be very good, if it 
had more ease, and if his writings had not so 
many Scotticisms, inaccuracies, and stiff in- 
verted sentences. Dr. Robertson's style is 
excellent for historical representations, but 



HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 173 
perhaps it is not fit for any other kind of 
composition. Addison has some inaccuracies 
in his writings, but, upon the whole, his style 
is certainly the best of any English author. 
It may also be added, that Lord Karnes, Drs. 
Reid, Smith, Goldsmith, and Mr. Melmoth, 
have written in a style very well adapted to 
their respective subjects. With respect to 
theological writers, Dr. Jortin's style is very 
good, and the sermons of Dr. Wit her spoon 
and Mr. Rob ert Walker are models of com- 
position in different respects. 

4. Read the best British poets — As poetry 
is under very different laws to what prose is, 
and as nature must make a poet, therefore 
this treatise is not intended to give rules to 
poets; however, prosaic authors should read 
poetry, in order to improve their taste, and to 
enliven their imagination. The best English 
writers in blank verse are, Milton, Thompson, 
Young, and Phillips, and some of the best in 
rhyme are, Pope, Cowper, Watts, Prior, 
Goldsmith, Shenstone, and Hayley. Those 
who cannot purchase Dr. Jjhnson's British 
Poets, and have noi much time to read, may 

12 



174 HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE, 
find great pleasure and profit in perusing Dr. 
Mavor's classical poetry, lately published, in 
1 vol. 12mo. price 4s. 6d. 

5. Often clothe the thoughts of a good 
writer in your own words. Take any very 
sentimental passage from Addison, Blair, or 
Johnson, read it over till you fully understand 
it, and then give it in your own language. 
By doing this, and then comparing your per- 
formance with the original, you will not only 
perceive your faults, but discover the peculiar 
beauties of the original. 

6. Very frequently compose— Good rules 
respecting composition may greatly assist, but 
only taste and frequent exercise can make a 
correct writer. Begin with short essays upon 
common subjects ; think very much before you 
compose, and form the general plan before 
you begin to write on any subject. Always 
lay by your performance to be afterwards 
corrected, and if you have a literary friend, ask 
his ad ice, or let him impartially examine 
your production. Endeavour to get a habit 
of correct writing, but do not compose too ia~ 
piaty. Remember the following lines : 



HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 175 

Compare each phrase, examine, ev'ry line, 
Weigh ev'ry word, and ev'ry thought refine ; 
Write and re- write, blot out and write again, 
And for its swiftness ne'er commend your pen. 

7. Let the style be adapted to the subject — 
A plain or neat style is most fit for subjects 
that require reasoning or deep thought. The 
manly or graceful is suited to religious, moral, 
and some literary topics. The vehement 
style of Lord Bolingbroke or Mr. Burke, is 
on many occasions proper for public speakers- 
in the senate or at the bar. 

A florid style, which is free from bombast, 
is well adapted to some grand or picturesque 
subjects. The style of Hume or Gibbon, but 
especially Dr. Robertson, may well suit all 
historical descriptions. Cicero- and Pliny 
amongst the ancients, and Atterbury, Arbuth- 
not, Montaigne, Pope, and Lady Montague 
amongst the moderns, are models fcr episto- 
lary writing. 

8. Let the conclusion of every subject 
be striking — Cicero, Quintilian, and other 
writers on eloquence, give particular direc- 



176 HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 

tions that the peroration, i. e. the conclu- 
sion of an oration, should be so harmonious 
and striking, as to leave a pleasing impression 
upon the minds of the hearers. This is 
equally applicable to written language, and 
the reader may observe, that most of the 
short examples of good composition in this 
work finish gracefully. 

I shall conclude this treatise with the fol- 
lowing quotation taken from Mr. Linley 
Murray's Grammar. ' Did we always think 
clearly, and were we fully masters of the 
language in which we write, there would be 
occasion iox Jew rules. Our sentences would 
then, of course, acquire all those properties 
of clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, 
which have been recommended. We may 
rest assured, that whenever we express our- 
selves ill, besides the mismanagement of lan- 
guage, there is for the most part some mis- 
take in our manner of conceiving the subject. 
Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentiments 
are generally, if not always, the result of 
embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought. 
The understanding and language have a 



HOW TO FORM A GOOD STYLE. 177 

strict connexion, and they who are learning 
to compose and arrange their sentences with 
accuracy and order, are learning at the same 
time to think with accuracy and order; a 
consideration which alone will recompense 
the student for his attention to this branch of 
literature.' 



THE END. 



Printed by C. WHITTINGHAM, 
Dean Street, Fetter Lane. 



BUCKINGHAM BOARDING SCHOOL 



YOUNG GENTLEMEN 



The Rev, G. G. Scraggs takes Boarders at E ; ghteen C-, 
neas per Annum, (Washing excluder!) and One Guinea En- 
trance. Besides Reading, Writing, and Cyphering, Mr. 
Scraggs teaches the English, Latin, and Greek. Languages; 
together with the Elements of History, Geography, Astronomy, 
and English Composition. French, Music, and Drawing are 
also taught on the usual terms. 

Buckingham is well known to be a very healthy situation, 
57 miles from London, and coaches up or down every day. 

*£* Mr. Scraggs has been above 16 years engaged in 
teaching youth. He has never taken a large number of pupils, 
well-knowing that a small school is moat for the benefit of the 
scholar, as well as the comfort of the master. Being fully con- 
vinced also, that long holidays are injurious to pup:l., Mr. 
Scraggs gives only three weeks at Christmas and Midsum- 
mer. 

e 

5 



